Ketamine: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 21:13, 19 March 2025

Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic widely used in medicine and veterinary medicine for anesthesia, pain management, and sedation. It is also known for its psychedelic effects and has gained attention for its potential as an antidepressant. Despite its medical applications, ketamine is also used recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties, leading to concerns about abuse and addiction.

Medical Uses[edit]

Ketamine is used in various medical settings, including hospitals, emergency rooms, and veterinary clinics. Some of its primary applications include:

Anesthesia[edit]

Ketamine is used as an anesthetic for surgeries and medical procedures, particularly in situations where maintaining airway reflexes is critical. Unlike other anesthetics, ketamine does not significantly suppress respiration, making it valuable in emergency settings.

Pain Management[edit]

Ketamine is administered for chronic pain conditions, such as:

Low-dose ketamine infusions have been increasingly used as an adjunct to traditional opioid therapies, helping to reduce opioid dependence.

Treatment-Resistant Depression[edit]

Recent studies suggest that ketamine has rapid and significant antidepressant effects, especially in individuals with treatment-resistant depression. A single dose can provide relief from depressive symptoms within hours, with effects lasting up to a week.

Ketamine is also being researched for its potential to treat:

Emergency Medicine[edit]

Ketamine is used in emergency settings due to its rapid onset and safety profile. It is useful for:

Trauma patients – Provides anesthesia and sedation without causing significant drops in blood pressure.
Severe asthma attacks – Functions as a bronchodilator to improve breathing.
Agitation and sedation – Used in psychiatric emergencies for acute agitation or violent behavior.

Pediatric and Veterinary Use[edit]

Ketamine is commonly used in pediatric anesthesia because of its safety in maintaining respiration and circulation.

In veterinary medicine, ketamine is widely used for sedation and anesthesia in cats, dogs, horses, and other animals.

Mechanism of Action[edit]

Ketamine primarily acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist in the central nervous system (CNS). By blocking these receptors, it inhibits excessive excitatory neurotransmission, leading to its anesthetic and analgesic effects.

Additionally, ketamine affects:

Opioid receptors – contributing to its pain-relief properties.
Dopamine system – leading to potential antidepressant effects.
Sigma receptors – involved in dissociative and hallucinogenic experiences.

Pharmacokinetics[edit]

Route of Administration	Bioavailability	Onset of Action	Duration of Effects
Intravenous (IV)	100%	30 sec – 1 min	10 – 15 min
Intramuscular (IM)	93%	2 – 4 min	30 – 60 min
Intranasal	45 – 50%	5 – 10 min	60 min
Sublingual	24 – 30%	15 – 30 min	1 – 2 hours
Oral	16 – 20%	30 – 40 min	2 – 6+ hours

Side Effects[edit]

While ketamine is a valuable medical drug, it also carries risks, particularly when misused.

Short-Term Side Effects[edit]

Common side effects include:

Dizziness
Nausea and vomiting
Increased blood pressure and heart rate
Blurred vision
Confusion and disorientation
Hallucinations and dissociation (often described as a "K-hole")
Difficulty speaking and moving

Long-Term Side Effects[edit]

Prolonged or heavy ketamine use can lead to:

Cognitive impairment – Memory loss, trouble concentrating.
Ketamine bladder syndrome – Severe inflammation, pain, and potential bladder dysfunction.
Liver and kidney damage – Due to chronic exposure.
Psychological dependence – Leading to addiction and withdrawal symptoms.

Recreational Use[edit]

Ketamine is widely used as a club drug due to its hallucinogenic and dissociative effects. Users often seek a sensation of detachment from reality, which can range from mild to profound.

Common Forms of Recreational Use:

Snorted (Insufflation) – Most common, with effects lasting 30 – 60 minutes.
Injected (IM or IV) – Produces stronger effects with a rapid onset.
Oral Consumption – Effects last longer but are less intense.

The "K-Hole" Experience: At high doses, users report entering a "K-hole", described as:

Out-of-body sensations
Ego dissolution
Time distortion
Vivid hallucinations

Long-term recreational use is associated with serious bladder damage, memory impairment, and psychological dependence.

Legal Status[edit]

Ketamine is classified differently across countries:

Country	Legal Status
United States	Schedule III (Controlled, but used medically)
United Kingdom	Class B (Illegal without prescription)
Canada	Schedule I (Highly restricted)
Australia	Schedule 8 (Controlled substance)
Germany	Anlage III (Requires special prescription)

Research and Future Applications[edit]

Antidepressant Research Ongoing research is exploring ketamine’s rapid antidepressant effects, particularly for:

Treatment-resistant depression
Bipolar depression
Postpartum depression
Suicidal ideation

Treatment for Addiction Studies suggest ketamine may help treat:

Alcohol use disorder
Opioid addiction
Nicotine dependence

Summary[edit]

Ketamine is a powerful anesthetic, analgesic, and psychedelic drug with widespread medical uses. While its potential for treating depression and chronic pain is promising, its recreational abuse raises concerns over addiction and long-term health effects. The drug remains a valuable tool in medicine but requires careful administration and regulation.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-[[File:(RS)-Ketamine-Structural Formulae V2.svg|thumb|300px|Ketamine]]
+'''Ketamine''' is a [[dissociative]] [[anesthetic]] widely used in [[medicine]] and [[veterinary medicine]] for [[anesthesia]], [[pain management]], and [[sedation]]. It is also known for its [[psychedelic]] effects and has gained attention for its potential as an [[antidepressant]]. Despite its medical applications, ketamine is also used recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties, leading to concerns about [[abuse]] and [[addiction]].
-'''Ketamine''' is a [[dissociative]] [[anesthetic]]. It is a type of drug a doctor might give to put someone to sleep for an operation. Ketamine can also be used as a [[painkiller]] and a bronchodilator (which makes it easier for air to get into your [[lungs]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peck |first1=T. E. |last2=Hill |first2=S. A. |last3=Williams |first3=M. |year=2008 |page=111 |title=Pharmacology for anaesthesia and intensive care (3rd edition) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-70463-2}}</ref>
-Sometimes it can lead to a special type of [[hallucination]] which makes you feel detached from yourself and the things around you<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bergman |first=S. A. |title=Ketamine: review of its pharmacology and its use in pediatric anesthesia |journal=Anesthesia Progress |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=10–20 |year=1999 |pmid=10551055 |pmc=2148883}}</ref> which is why some people use it as a recreational drug. As it can have severe side effects, it is usually not available as an over-the-counter drug.
-==Medical use==
+[[File:Ketamine2DCSD.svg|thumb|300px|Ketamine chemical structure]]
-In medicine, ketamine is normally injected into a [[vein]] or [[muscle]].<ref name="lankenau">{{Cite journal|author=Lankenau SE, Sanders B, Bloom JJ, ''et al.'' |title=First injection of ketamine among young injection drug users (IDUs) in three U.S. cities |journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence |volume=87 |issue=2–3 |pages=183–93 |date=March 2007 |pmid=16979848 |pmc=1852477 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.015}}</ref>
+[[File:S-ketamine-from-HCl-xtal-3D-balls.png|thumb|300px|S-Ketamine 3D molecular structure]]
-Ketamine is not the first anaesthetic a doctor would think of using in most situations because of the hallucinations it causes. On the other hand, while most anaesthetics suppress your breathing, resulting in the need for a machine to help you breathe, ketamine does not.<ref name="heshmati">{{Cite journal|author=Heshmati F, Zeinali MB, Noroozinia H, Abbacivash R, Mahoori A |title=Use of ketamine in severe status asthmaticus in intensive care unit |journal=Iranian Journal of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=175–80 |date=December 2003 |pmid=17301376 |doi=}}</ref>
-This can make it a useful anaesthetic when you don't have any equipment available, for example, in a war zone.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source|date=December 2013}}
-==Side effects==
+== Medical Uses ==
+Ketamine is used in various medical settings, including hospitals, emergency rooms, and veterinary clinics. Some of its primary applications include:
-===Short term===
+=== Anesthesia ===
-Short term side effects happen in about 40% of people and include:<ref name ="Quibell">{{Cite journal|author = Quibell R, Prommer EE, Mihalyo M, ''et al.''|title = "Ketamine*"|journal = Journal of Pain and Symptom Management |volume = 41| issue = 3|pages = 640-649|date=March 2011|pmid = 21419322|doi=10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.01.001}}</ref>
+Ketamine is used as an [[anesthetic]] for surgeries and medical procedures, particularly in situations where maintaining [[airway reflexes]] is critical. Unlike other anesthetics, ketamine does not significantly suppress [[respiration]], making it valuable in emergency settings.
-* [[Dizziness]]
-* [[Double vision]]
-* [[Euphoria]]
-* [[Blurred vision]]
-* Finding it hard to express [[emotions]], not being very emotionally reactive
-* [[High blood pressure]]
-* [[Tachycardia|Fast heart beat]]
-* [[Nausea|Feeling sick]] and [[vomiting]]
-* Having trouble understanding or producing [[speech]]
-* [[Nightmares]]
-* [[Illusions]]
-* [[Hallucinations]]
-* Changed [[body image]]
-* [[Impaired memory]] and [[attention]].
-===Long term===
+=== Pain Management ===
+Ketamine is administered for [[chronic pain]] conditions, such as:
+* [[Neuropathic pain]]
+* [[Cancer pain]]
+* [[Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS)]]
+* Post-surgical pain management
-In the medical setting, ketamine is only given a few times so most long term effects mentioned below are found in recreational ketamine users and animal models.<ref name=morgan11>{{cite journal|last=Morgan|first=Celia J. A.|coauthors=Curran, H. Valerie|title=Ketamine use: a review|journal=Addiction|date=1 January 2012|volume=107|issue=1|pages=27–38|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03576.x|pmid=21777321}}</ref>
+Low-dose ketamine infusions have been increasingly used as an adjunct to traditional [[opioid]] therapies, helping to reduce opioid dependence.
-====Urinary tract effects====
+=== Treatment-Resistant Depression ===
-There are 110 reports of people with problems in their urinary tract due to using ketamine.<ref name=middela>{{cite journal|last=Middela|first=S.|coauthors=Pearce, I.|title=Ketamine-induced vesicopathy: a literature review|journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice|date=1 January 2011|volume=65|issue=1|pages=27–30|doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2010.02502.x|pmid=21155941}}</ref>
+Recent studies suggest that ketamine has rapid and significant [[antidepressant]] effects, especially in individuals with treatment-resistant depression. A single dose can provide relief from depressive symptoms within hours, with effects lasting up to a week.
-Symptoms include:
+Ketamine is also being researched for its potential to treat:
-* Urgently needing to urinate.
+* [[Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)]]
-* Finding it painful to urinate and having [[blood]] in your [[urine]].
+* [[Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)]]
-* Not being able to hold as much urine in your [[bladder]]
+* [[Suicidal ideation]]
-* These urinary tract problems are most common in people who have abused ketamine daily for a long time.<ref name =morgan11 />
+* [[Anxiety disorders]]
-====Neurological effects====
+=== Emergency Medicine ===
+Ketamine is used in emergency settings due to its rapid onset and safety profile. It is useful for:
+* Trauma patients – Provides anesthesia and sedation without causing significant drops in blood pressure.
+* Severe asthma attacks – Functions as a bronchodilator to improve breathing.
+* Agitation and sedation – Used in psychiatric emergencies for acute agitation or violent behavior.
-People who abuse ketamine a lot (more than 4 times a week) have been found to have impaired memory and increased depression when compared to people who don't abuse ketamine. Those who use ketamine less frequently (1-4 times per week) and those who had stopped taking ketamine showed no difference in the aforementioned parameters. This suggests that these problems with memory and mood do not affect infrequent users and might be reversible once ketamine use is stopped.<ref name="Addiction Users Study">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02761.x |pmid=19919593 |title=Consequences of chronic ketamine self-administration upon neurocognitive function and psychological wellbeing: a 1-year longitudinal study |year=2009 |last1=Morgan |first1=Celia J. A. |last2=Muetzelfeldt |first2=Leslie |last3=Curran |first3=H. Valerie |journal=Addiction |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=121–33}}</ref>
+=== Pediatric and Veterinary Use ===
+Ketamine is commonly used in pediatric anesthesia because of its safety in maintaining respiration and circulation.
-One study has recently been done using monkeys as a model to see if ketamine is toxic to the brain.<ref name="Cynomolgus monkey neurotoxiciy">{{cite journal|last=Sun|first=Lin|coauthors=Qi Li, Qing Li, Yuzhe Zhang, Dexiang Liu, Hong Jiang, Fang Pan, David T. Yew|title=Chronic ketamine exposure induces permanent impairment of brain functions in adolescent cynomolgus monkeys|journal=Addiction Biology|date=November 2012|doi=10.1111/adb.12004|pmid=23145560|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/adb.12004/abstract}}</ref>
+In veterinary medicine, ketamine is widely used for sedation and anesthesia in cats, dogs, horses, and other animals.
-The study found that injecting the monkeys every day for 6 months with ketamine caused more cells to die in the [[pre-frontal cortex|front]] of their brain and also caused a decrease in activity in the areas of the brain which control movement.
-==Mechanism of action==
+== Mechanism of Action ==
-Ketamine is an NMDA antagonist in the CNS. By inhibiting NMDA receptors in inhibitory neurons in the brain, it causes increased CNS activity and sympathomimetic effects. As a result, there is not only an anaesthetic effect, but also activation of the CNS unlike other anaesthetics. This is beneficial in surgical settings because it maintains blood pressure, airway reflexes, bronchioles remain dilated, and airways patent. Making this a particularly useful drug in shock and surgery patients because of blood pressure maintained with ketamine use, unlike typical anaesthetics which cause decreased BP and respiratory suppression.
+Ketamine primarily acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist in the [[central nervous system]] (CNS). By blocking these receptors, it inhibits excessive excitatory neurotransmission, leading to its anesthetic and analgesic effects.
-==Research==
+Additionally, ketamine affects:
+* Opioid receptors – contributing to its pain-relief properties.
+* Dopamine system – leading to potential antidepressant effects.
+* Sigma receptors – involved in dissociative and hallucinogenic experiences.
-===Treating addiction===
+== Pharmacokinetics ==
-One study by Evgeny Krupitsky has found that using ketamine along with psychotherapy and group therapy was a lot more effective at treating alcohol addiction than the traditional treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eleusis.us/resource-center/references/acamethod.php|title=The Combination of Psychedelic and Aversive Approaches in Alcoholism Treatment - Eleusis<!-- Bot generated title -->|publisher=}}</ref>
+{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
-The same scientist found that ketamine might also be useful for treating heroin addiction. Patients who had been treated for their addiction with multiple sessions of ketamine fared much better than those who had only had one session of ketamine, with abstinence rates of 50% and 22.2% respectively.<ref>http://www.eleusis.us/resource-center/references/ketamine-psychotherapy-heroin.pdf</ref>
+! Route of Administration !! Bioavailability !! Onset of Action !! Duration of Effects
+|-
+| [[Intravenous therapy|Intravenous (IV)]] || 100% || 30 sec – 1 min || 10 – 15 min
+|-
+| [[Intramuscular injection|Intramuscular (IM)]] || 93% || 2 – 4 min || 30 – 60 min
+|-
+| [[Intranasal administration|Intranasal]] || 45 – 50% || 5 – 10 min || 60 min
+|-
+| [[Sublingual administration|Sublingual]] || 24 – 30% || 15 – 30 min || 1 – 2 hours
+|-
+| [[Oral administration|Oral]] || 16 – 20% || 30 – 40 min || 2 – 6+ hours
+|}
-===As an antidepressant===
+== Side Effects ==
-Some small studies have been done which found that a single dose of ketamine was able to improve treatment-resistant depression after just a few hours, with the effects lasting for one week.<ref>[http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2006/nimh-07b.htm NIH. "Experimental Medication Kicks Depression in Hours Instead of Weeks"] ''NIH News'', 7 August 2006</ref><ref>Khamsi, R. [https://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/dn9696.html "Ketamine relieves depression within hours"] ''[[New Scientist]]'', 8 August 2006.</ref> The rapid antidepressant effects of ketamine may prove to be a useful alternative compared to current antidepressants, which can take several weeks to have their effects.<ref name=pmid8788498>{{Cite journal|author=Eison AS, Mullins UL |title=Regulation of central 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptors: a review of in vivo studies |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |volume=73 |issue=1–2 |pages=177–81 |year=1996 |pmid=8788498 |doi=10.1016/0166-4328(96)00092-7}}</ref>
+While ketamine is a valuable medical drug, it also carries risks, particularly when misused.
-===Complex regional pain syndrome===
+=== Short-Term Side Effects ===
-CRPS is a disease that causes severe pain and swelling, getting worse over time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.marksandharrison.com/firm-news-announcements/complex-regional-pain-syndrome-crps/|title=Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS)|publisher=Marks & Harrison}}</ref> Some researchers have been investigating the use of ketamine to treat this condition. In some cases, low-dose ketamine infusions have shown promising results in reducing pain levels, even in patients who have not responded to other treatments.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schwartzman RJ, Alexander GM, Grothusen JR, Paylor T, Reichenberger E, Perreault M|title=Outpatient intravenous ketamine for the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a double-blind placebo controlled study|journal=Pain|volume=147|issue=1–3|pages=107–15|year=2009|pmid=19836135|doi=10.1016/j.pain.2009.08.015}}</ref>
+Common side effects include:
+* Dizziness
+* Nausea and vomiting
+* Increased blood pressure and heart rate
+* Blurred vision
+* Confusion and disorientation
+* Hallucinations and dissociation (often described as a "K-hole")
+* Difficulty speaking and moving
-===Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)===
+=== Long-Term Side Effects ===
-Ketamine has been studied for its potential use in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some early studies suggest that ketamine may be effective in rapidly reducing the severity of PTSD symptoms, and its effects may last for several weeks following a single treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Feder A, Parides MK, Murrough JW, et al.|title=Efficacy of Intravenous Ketamine for Treatment of Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial|journal=JAMA Psychiatry|volume=71|issue=6|pages=681–688|year=2014|pmid=24740528|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.62}}</ref> More research is needed to determine the safety and efficacy of ketamine for treating PTSD in the long term.
+Prolonged or heavy ketamine use can lead to:
+* Cognitive impairment – Memory loss, trouble concentrating.
+* Ketamine bladder syndrome – Severe inflammation, pain, and potential bladder dysfunction.
+* Liver and kidney damage – Due to chronic exposure.
+* Psychological dependence – Leading to addiction and withdrawal symptoms.
-==Recreational use==
+== Recreational Use ==
-Ketamine is sometimes used recreationally, typically at sub-anesthetic doses. Users often report feelings of dissociation, hallucinations, and a sense of detachment from their body or reality. This experience is sometimes referred to as entering the "K-hole."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/59zj5z/what-is-a-k-hole-ketamine|title=What Is a K-Hole and What Does It Feel Like?|publisher=VICE|author=Max Daly}}</ref> However, frequent or high-dose recreational use can lead to a variety of negative health consequences, including bladder damage, cognitive impairment, and addiction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Morgan CJ, Curran HV |title=Acute and chronic effects of ketamine upon human memory: a review |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=188 |issue=4 |pages=408–24 |year=2006 |pmid=17019667 |doi=10.1007/s00213-006-0572-3}}</ref>
+Ketamine is widely used as a club drug due to its hallucinogenic and dissociative effects. Users often seek a sensation of detachment from reality, which can range from mild to profound.
-==Risks and side effects==
+Common Forms of Recreational Use:
-Ketamine can cause various side effects, including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), and increased heart rate and blood pressure. High doses or frequent use of ketamine can lead to more severe side effects, such as bladder damage, cognitive impairment, and addiction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Morgan CJ, Curran HV |title=Acute and chronic effects of ketamine upon human memory: a review |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=188 |issue=4 |pages=408–24 |year=2006 |pmid=17019667 |doi=10.1007/s00213-006-0572-3}}</ref>
+* Snorted (Insufflation) – Most common, with effects lasting 30 – 60 minutes.
+* Injected (IM or IV) – Produces stronger effects with a rapid onset.
+* Oral Consumption – Effects last longer but are less intense.
-Long-term use of ketamine can lead to a condition called [[ketamine cystitis]], which is characterized by severe inflammation of the bladder, causing symptoms such as frequent and painful urination, blood in the urine, and incontinence.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Chu PS, Ma WK, Wong SC, et al.|title=The destruction of the lower urinary tract by ketamine abuse: a new syndrome?|journal=BJU International|volume=102|issue=11|pages=1616-1622|year=2008|pmid=19021601|doi=10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07917.x}}</ref> Additionally, chronic ketamine use has been associated with cognitive deficits, including impairments in memory, attention, and executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Morgan CJ, Curran HV |title=Acute and chronic effects of ketamine upon human memory: a review |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=188 |issue=4 |pages=408–24 |year=2006 |pmid=17019667 |doi=10.1007/s00213-006-0572-3}}</ref>
+The "K-Hole" Experience:
+At high doses, users report entering a "K-hole", described as:
+* Out-of-body sensations
+* Ego dissolution
+* Time distortion
+* Vivid hallucinations
-Ketamine can also have psychological side effects, such as feelings of anxiety, agitation, and paranoia. These effects may be more pronounced in individuals with a history of mental health disorders. There is also a risk of developing a psychological dependence on ketamine, especially with frequent use.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Muetzelfeldt L, Kamboj SK, Rees H, Taylor J, Morgan CJ, Curran HV |title=Journey through the K-hole: phenomenological aspects of ketamine use|journal=Drug and Alcohol Dependence |volume=95 |issue=1-2 |pages=219–29 |year=2008 |pmid=18355990 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.01.024}}</ref>
+Long-term recreational use is associated with serious bladder damage, memory impairment, and psychological dependence.
+== Legal Status ==
+Ketamine is classified differently across countries:
+{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
+! Country !! Legal Status
+|-
+| United States || Schedule III (Controlled, but used medically)
+|-
+| United Kingdom || Class B (Illegal without prescription)
+|-
+| Canada || Schedule I (Highly restricted)
+|-
+| Australia || Schedule 8 (Controlled substance)
+|-
+| Germany || Anlage III (Requires special prescription)
+|}
+== Research and Future Applications ==
+Antidepressant Research
+Ongoing research is exploring ketamine’s rapid antidepressant effects, particularly for:
+* Treatment-resistant depression
+* Bipolar depression
+* Postpartum depression
+* Suicidal ideation
+Treatment for Addiction
+Studies suggest ketamine may help treat:
+* Alcohol use disorder
+* Opioid addiction
+* Nicotine dependence
+== Summary ==
+Ketamine is a powerful anesthetic, analgesic, and psychedelic drug with widespread medical uses. While its potential for treating depression and chronic pain is promising, its recreational abuse raises concerns over addiction and long-term health effects. The drug remains a valuable tool in medicine but requires careful administration and regulation.
+== See Also ==
+* [[Dissociative anesthetics]]
+* [[NMDA receptor antagonists]]
+* [[Psychedelic therapy]]
+* [[General anesthesia]]
+* [[Pain management]]
-It is essential to use ketamine under the supervision of a healthcare professional to minimize the risk of side effects and complications. When used medically, ketamine is typically administered in a controlled setting, with appropriate monitoring and management of potential side effects.
-==References==
-<references/>
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+{{Pharmacology}}
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-|title= [[Pharmacodynamics]]
+|title= Medical Uses
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-{{Acetylcholine receptor modulators}}
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+|title= Recreational Use
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-{{Portal bar|Medicine}}
+{{Portal bar|Medicine|Psychiatry}}
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+{{stub}}
+[[Category:Anesthetics]]
+[[Category:Psychedelics]]
+[[Category:Dissociative drugs]]
 [[Category:Analgesics]]
-[[Category:Antidepressants]]
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-[[Category:Muscarinic antagonists]]
 [[Category:NMDA receptor antagonists]]
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+[[Category:Controlled substances]]
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+[[Category:Veterinary drugs]]
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