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| {{SI}} | | {{SI}} |
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| | {{Short description|Branch of science studying drug action on biological systems}} |
| | {{Infobox medical specialty |
| | | name = Pharmacology |
| | | image = |
| | | caption = |
| | | focus = [[Pharmaceutical drug|Drugs]] and their effects on biological systems |
| | | field = [[Medicine]], [[Biology]], [[Pharmacy]] |
| | | subspecialties = [[Clinical pharmacology]], [[Neuropharmacology]], [[Psychopharmacology]], [[Toxicology]] |
| | | system = [[Nervous system]], [[endocrine system]], [[cardiovascular system]], etc. |
| | | tests = [[Bioassay]], [[in vitro]] and [[in vivo]] studies, [[clinical trial]]s |
| | | treatments = [[Drug therapy]] |
| | | specialists = [[Pharmacologist]] |
| | }} |
| | [[File:Constant tempertature bath for isolated organs Wellcome M0013241.jpg|Pharmacology|thumb]] |
| | [[File:Raw opium.jpg|Raw opium|left|thumb]] |
| | [[File:Morphin - Morphine.svg|Morphin|thumb]] |
| | [[File:Areas within Pharmacology.svg|Areas within Pharmacology|thumb]] |
| | '''Pharmacology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word '''φάρμακον''' ''pharmakon'', meaning "drug" or "medicine", and '''-λογία''' ''-logia'', meaning "study of") is the branch of [[medicine]], [[biology]], and [[pharmaceutical sciences]] concerned with the **study of drug action**. A ''drug'' is any natural, synthetic, or endogenous chemical substance that exerts a **biochemical or physiological effect** on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. |
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| | More specifically, pharmacology studies the **interactions between living organisms and chemicals** that influence biological function. If a substance has beneficial therapeutic properties, it is classified as a [[pharmaceutical]] or [[medication]]. |
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| '''Pharmacology''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:φάρμακον|φάρμακον]]}}, ''pharmakon'', "[[poison]]" in classic Greek; "drug" in modern Greek; and {{lang|grc|[[wiktionary:-λογία|-λογία]]}}, ''[[wiktionary:-logia|-logia]]'' "study of", "knowledge of") is the branch of medicine and [[biology]] concerned with the study of [[drug]] action,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vallance P, Smart TG |title=The future of pharmacology |journal=[[British Journal of Pharmacology]] |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S304–7 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16402118 |pmc=1760753 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706454 |url=}}</ref> where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have [[medication|medicinal]] properties, they are considered [[Pharmaceutical drug|pharmaceuticals]].
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| | == Overview == |
| The field encompasses [[drug]] composition and properties, synthesis and drug design, molecular and cellular mechanisms, organ/systems mechanisms, signal transduction/cellular communication, molecular diagnostics, [[drug interaction|interaction]]s, [[toxicology]], [[chemical biology]], therapy, and medical applications and antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are [[pharmacodynamics]] and [[pharmacokinetics]]. The former studies the effects of the drug on biological systems, and the latter the effects of biological systems on the drug. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the chemicals with biological [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]], and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with [[pharmacy]] and the two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology, a biomedical science, deals with the research, discovery, and characterization of chemicals which show biological effects and the elucidation of cellular and organismal function in relation to these chemicals. In contrast, [[pharmacy]], a health services profession, is concerned with application of the principles learned from pharmacology in its clinical settings; whether it be in a dispensing or clinical care role. In either field, the primary contrast between the two are their distinctions between direct-patient care, for pharmacy practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology.
| | Pharmacology encompasses the **discovery, characterization, and understanding of the properties and actions of drugs**. It investigates both the **mechanisms of action** and the **effects of substances** at various biological levels—molecular, cellular, systemic, and behavioral. |
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| | Substances studied in pharmacology may be: |
| [[Pedanius Dioscorides|Dioscorides]]' ''[[De Materia Medica]]'' is often said to be the oldest and most valuable work in the history of pharmacology.<ref>Gulsel M. Kavalali (2003). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AoWtF1ruQJsC&pg=PA15&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Urtica: therapeutic and nutritional aspects of stinging nettles]''". [[CRC Press]]. p.15. ISBN 0-415-30833-X</ref> The origins of [[clinical pharmacology]] date back to the [[Middle Ages]] in [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', [[Peter of Spain]]'s ''Commentary on Isaac'', and John of St Amand's ''Commentary on the Antedotary of Nicholas''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brater DC, Daly WJ |title=Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: principles that presage the 21st century |journal=Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=447–50 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10824622 |doi=10.1067/mcp.2000.106465}}</ref> Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of [[William Withering]].<ref>Mannfred A. Hollinger (2003)."''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bx-WfLwrVH8C&pg=PA4&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Introduction to pharmacology]''". [[CRC Press]]. p.4. ISBN 0-415-28033-8</ref> Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period.<ref name=rang2006>{{cite journal |author=Rang HP |title=The receptor concept: pharmacology's big idea |journal=Br. J. Pharmacol. |volume=147 Suppl 1 |issue= S1|pages=S9–16 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16402126 |pmc=1760743 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0706457}}</ref> Before the second half of the nineteenth century, the remarkable potency and specificity of the actions of drugs such as [[morphine]], [[quinine]] and [[digitalis]] were explained vaguely and with reference to extraordinary chemical powers and affinities to certain organs or tissues.<ref name=AHM2002>{{cite journal |author=Maehle AH, Prüll CR, Halliwell RF |title=The emergence of the drug receptor theory |journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov |volume=1 |issue=8 |pages=637–41 |date=August 2002 |pmid=12402503 |doi=10.1038/nrd875}}</ref> The first pharmacology department was set up by [[Rudolf Buchheim]] in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs and poisons produced their effects.<ref name=rang2006/>
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| | * [[Exogenous]] compounds (introduced from outside the body) |
| Early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a biomedical science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts.<ref name=rang>{{cite book|last=Rang|first=H.P.|title=Pharmacology|year=2007|coauthors=M.M. Dale, J.M. Ritter, R.J. Flower|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|location=[[China]]|isbn=0-443-06911-5}}</ref> Today Pharmacologists harness the power of genetics, molecular biology, chemistry, and other advanced tools to transform information about molecular mechanisms and targets into therapies directed against disease, defects or pathogens, and create methods for preventative care, diagnostics, and ultimately personalized medicine.
| | * [[Endogenous]] compounds (produced naturally in the body) |
| | * [[Natural product]]s derived from plants or microbes |
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| ==Divisions== <!--T:6-->
| | The goal of pharmacology is to understand how drugs interact with biological systems and how the body responds to these substances, both in healthy and diseased states. |
| The discipline of pharmacology can be divided into many sub disciplines each with a specific focus. | |
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| ===Clinical pharmacology=== <!--T:7--> | | == Branches of pharmacology == |
| [[Clinical pharmacology]] is the basic science of pharmacology with an added focus on the application of pharmacological principles and methods in the [[medical clinic]] and towards patient care and outcomes.
| | Pharmacology is a multidisciplinary science with several specialized subfields: |
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| ===Neuropharmacology=== <!--T:8-->
| | * '''[[Pharmacodynamics]]''' – the study of what a drug does to the body, including mechanisms of action and drug-receptor interactions. |
| [[Neuropharmacology]] is the study of the effects of medication on [[central nervous system|central]] and [[peripheral nervous system]] functioning. | | * '''[[Pharmacokinetics]]''' – the study of what the body does to a drug, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). |
| | * '''[[Clinical pharmacology]]''' – focuses on drug use in humans and the effects of drugs in clinical settings. |
| | * '''[[Neuropharmacology]]''' – studies the effects of drugs on the [[nervous system]]. |
| | * '''[[Psychopharmacology]]''' – explores the impact of drugs on mood, perception, behavior, and cognition. |
| | * '''[[Toxicology]]''' – investigates the harmful effects of chemicals and drugs on living organisms. |
| | * '''[[Pharmacogenomics]]''' – studies how genes affect an individual's response to drugs. |
| | * '''[[Pharmacoepidemiology]]''' – evaluates the use and effects of drugs in large populations. |
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| ===Psychopharmacology=== <!--T:9--> | | == History == |
| [[Psychopharmacology]] is the study of the effects of medication on the [[psyche]], observing changed behaviors of the body and mind, and how molecular events are manifest in a measurable behavioral form.
| | Pharmacology has ancient roots in herbal medicine and traditional healing. Modern pharmacology began to develop in the 19th century with the advancement of chemistry and physiology. Key milestones include: |
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| ===Pharmacogenetics=== <!--T:10-->
| | * Isolation of [[morphine]] from [[opium]] in the early 1800s |
| [[Pharmacogenetics]] is clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs. | | * Discovery of [[anesthetics]] such as [[ether]] and [[chloroform]] |
| | * Introduction of standardized drug testing in laboratories |
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| ===Pharmacogenomics=== <!--T:11-->
| | The field expanded rapidly in the 20th century with the advent of **synthetic drugs**, **antibiotics**, and **hormone therapies**. |
| [[Pharmacogenomics]] is the application of genomic technologies to [[drug discovery]] and further characterization of older drugs.
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| | == Applications == |
| Identification of the genetic basis for polymorphic expression of a gene is done through intronic or exomic [[SNPs]] which abolishes the need for different mechanisms for explaining the variability in drug metabolism. SNPs based variations in membrane receptors lead to [[multidrug resistance]] (MDR) and the drug–drug interactions. Even drug induced toxicity and many adverse effects can be explained by GWA studies. The multitude of SNPs help in understanding gene [[pharmacokinetic]] (PK) or [[pharmacodynamic]] (PD) pathways.<ref>Fareed, M., Afzal, M (2013) "Single nucleotide polymorphism in genome-wide association of human population: A tool for broad spectrum service". ''Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics'' 14: 123–134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmhg.2012.08.001.</ref>
| | Pharmacology is essential in: |
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| ===Pharmacoepidemiology=== <!--T:13-->
| | * **Drug development** – discovering and optimizing new therapeutic compounds |
| [[Pharmacoepidemiology]] is the study of the effects of drugs in large numbers of people.
| | * **Clinical medicine** – prescribing drugs safely and effectively |
| | * **Public health** – understanding drug effects in populations |
| | * **Veterinary medicine** – applying pharmacological principles to animal health |
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| ===Toxicology=== <!--T:14--> | | == Relation to other disciplines == |
| [[Toxicology]] is the study of the [[adverse effect]]s, molecular targets, and characterization of drugs or any chemical substance in excess (including those beneficial in lower doses).
| | Pharmacology differs from: |
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| ===Theoretical pharmacology=== <!--T:15-->
| | * '''[[Pharmacy]]''': the science and practice of preparing and dispensing drugs. |
| Theoretical pharmacology is the study of [[metrics]] in pharmacology.
| | * '''[[Medicinal chemistry]]''': the design and chemical synthesis of pharmaceutical agents. |
| | * '''[[Biochemistry]]''': the study of chemical processes within living organisms. |
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| ===Posology=== <!--T:16--> | | == Gallery == |
| [[Posology]] is the study of how medicines are dosed. It also depends upon various factors including age, climate, weight, and sex.
| | <gallery> |
| | | File:Pharmacologyprism.jpg|Pharmacology |
| ===Pharmacognosy=== <!--T:17-->
| | File:Toxicology Research at FDA (NCTR 1193) (6009043040).jpg|Pharmacology |
| [[Pharmacognosy]] is a branch of pharmacology dealing especially with the composition, use, and development of medicinal substances of biological origin and especially medicinal substances obtained from plants.
| | File:Drug discovery cycle.svg|Pharmacology |
| | | File:Dose response antagonist.jpg|Pharmacology |
| ===Behavioral pharmacology=== <!--T:18-->
| | File:Cholinergic synapse.svg|Pharmacology |
| [[Behavioral pharmacology]], also referred to as psychopharmacology, is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactivedrugs. It incorporates approaches and techniques from neuropharmacology, animal behavior and behavioral neuroscience, and is interested in the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs. Another goal of behavioral pharmacology is to develop animal behavioral models to screen chemical compounds with therapeutic potentials. People in this field (called behavioral pharmacologists) typically use small animals (e.g. rodents) to study psychotherapeutic drugs such as antipsychotics, antidepressants and anxiolytics, and drugs of abuse such as nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, etc.
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| | | == See also == |
| ===Environmental pharmacology=== <!--T:19-->
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| Environmental pharmacology is a new discipline.<ref>{{cite journal| url= http://www.ijp-online.com/text.asp?2006/38/4/229/27017 | doi=10.4103/0253-7613.27017 | last=Rahman| first=SZ| last2=Khan| first2=RA| title= Environmental pharmacology: A new discipline | journal= Indian J Pharmacol. |date=Dec 2006| volume=38| issue=4| pages= 229–30}}</ref> Focus is being given to understand [[gene–environment interaction]], drug-environment interaction and toxin-environment interaction. There is a close collaboration between [[environmental science]] and [[medicine]] in addressing these issues, as healthcare itself can be a cause of [[environmental damage]] or [[Environmental remediation|remediation]]. Human health and ecology are intimately related. Demand for more pharmaceutical products may place the public at risk through the destruction of species. The entry of chemicals and drugs into the [[aquatic ecosystem]] is a more serious concern today. In addition, the production of some [[illegal drugs]] pollutes drinking water supply by releasing [[carcinogens]].<ref>Ilene Sue Ruhoy, Christian G. Daughton.
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| Beyond the medicine cabinet: An analysis of where and why medications accumulate. Environment International 2008, Vol. 34 (8): 1157–1169</ref> This field is intimately linked with Public Health fields.'''
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| ==Scientific background== <!--T:20-->
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| The study of chemicals requires intimate knowledge of the biological system affected. With the knowledge of [[cell biology]] and [[biochemistry]] increasing, the field of pharmacology has also changed substantially. It has become possible, through molecular analysis of [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]], to design chemicals that act on specific cellular signaling or [[metabolic pathway]]s by affecting sites directly on cell-surface receptors (which modulate and mediate cellular signaling pathways controlling cellular function).
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| A chemical has, from the pharmacological point-of-view, various properties. [[Pharmacokinetics]] describes the effect of the body on the chemical (e.g. [[half-life]] and [[volume of distribution]]), and [[pharmacodynamics]] describes the chemical's effect on the body (desired or [[toxic]]).
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| When describing the pharmacokinetic properties of a chemical, pharmacologists are often interested in ''L-ADME'':
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| * [[Liberation (pharmacology)|Liberation]] – How is the medication disintegrated (for solid oral forms (breaking down into smaller particles)), dispersed, or dissolved?
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| * [[Absorption (digestive)|Absorption]] – How is the medication absorbed (through the [[human skin|skin]], the [[intestine]], the [[oral mucosa]])?
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| * [[Distribution (pharmacology)|Distribution]] – How does it spread through the organism?
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| * [[Drug metabolism|Metabolism]] – Is the medication converted chemically inside the body, and into which substances. Are these active? Could they be toxic?
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| * [[Excretion]] – How is the medication eliminated (through the bile, urine, breath, skin)?
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| Medication is said to have a narrow or wide ''[[therapeutic index]]'' or ''[[therapeutic window]]''. This describes the ratio of desired effect to toxic effect. A compound with a narrow therapeutic index (close to one) exerts its desired effect at a dose close to its toxic dose. A compound with a wide therapeutic index (greater than five) exerts its desired effect at a dose substantially below its toxic dose. Those with a narrow margin are more difficult to dose and administer, and may require [[therapeutic drug monitoring]] (examples are [[warfarin]], some [[antiepileptic]]s, [[aminoglycoside]] [[antibiotics]]). Most anti-[[cancer]] drugs have a narrow therapeutic margin: toxic side-effects are almost always encountered at doses used to kill [[tumor]]s.
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| ==Medicine development and safety testing== <!--T:24-->
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| [[Drug development|Development of medication]] is a vital concern to [[medicine]], but also has strong [[economical]] and [[political]] implications. To protect the [[consumer]] and prevent abuse, many governments regulate the manufacture, sale, and administration of medication. In the [[United States]], the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the [[Food and Drug Administration]] and they enforce [[Technical standard|standards]] set by the [[United States Pharmacopoeia]]. In the [[European Union]], the main body that regulates pharmaceuticals is the [[European Medicines Agency|EMEA]] and they enforce standards set by the [[European Pharmacopoeia]].
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| The metabolic stability and the reactivity of a library of candidate drug compounds have to be assessed for drug metabolism and toxicological studies. Many methods have been proposed for quantitative predictions in drug metabolism; one example of a recent computational method is [http://www.freebase.com/view/en/sporcalc SPORCalc].<ref>{{cite journal | author = James Smith; Viktor Stein | year = 2009 | title = SPORCalc: A development of a database analysis that provides putative metabolic enzyme reactions for ligand-based drug design | journal = Computational Biology and Chemistry | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–159 | pmid=19157988 | doi = 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2008.11.002 }}</ref> If the chemical structure of a medicinal compound is altered slightly, this could slightly or dramatically alter the medicinal properties of the compound depending on the level of alteration as it relates to the structural composition of the substrate or receptor site on which it exerts its medicinal effect, a concept referred to as the structural activity relationship (SAR). This means that when a useful activity has been identified, chemists will make many similar compounds called analogues, in an attempt to maximize the desired medicinal effect(s) of the compound. This development phase can take anywhere from a few years to a decade or more and is very expensive.<ref name="ReviseALChem">{{cite book|last=Newton|first=David|coauthors=Alasdair Thorpe, Chris Otter|title=Revise A2 Chemistry|publisher=[[Heinemann Educational Publishers]]|year=2004|pages=1|month=|isbn =0-435-58347-6}}</ref>
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| These new analogues need to be developed. It needs to be determined how safe the medicine is for human consumption, its stability in the human body and the best form for delivery to the desired organ system, like tablet or aerosol. After extensive testing, which can take up to 6 years, the new medicine is ready for marketing and selling.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/>
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| As a result of the long time required to develop analogues and test a new medicine and the fact that of every 5000 potential new medicines typically only one will ever reach the open market, this is an expensive way of doing things, often costing over 1 billion dollars. To recoup this outlay pharmaceutical companies may do a number of things:<ref name="ReviseALChem"/>
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| * Carefully research the demand for their potential new product before spending an outlay of company funds.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/>
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| * Obtain a patent on the new medicine preventing other companies from producing that medicine for a certain allocation of time.<ref name="ReviseALChem"/>
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| ==Drug legislation and safety== <!--T:28-->
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| In the [[United States]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) is responsible for creating guidelines for the approval and use of drugs. The FDA requires that all approved drugs fulfill two requirements:
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| # The drug must be found to be effective against the disease for which it is seeking approval (where 'effective' means only that the drug performed better than placebo or competitors in at least two trials).
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| # The drug must meet safety criteria by being subject to animal and controlled human testing.
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| Gaining FDA approval usually takes several years to attain. Testing done on animals must be extensive and must include several species to help in the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of the drug. The dosage of any drug approved for use is intended to fall within a range in which the drug produces a [[therapeutic effect]] or desired outcome.<ref name=nagle>{{cite book|last=Nagle|first=Hinter|title=Pharmacology: An Introduction|year=2005|coauthors=Barbara Nagle|publisher=[[McGraw Hill]]|location=[[Boston]]|isbn=0-07-312275-0}}</ref>
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| The safety and effectiveness of prescription drugs in the U.S. is regulated by the federal [[Prescription Drug Marketing Act (PDMA)|Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987]].
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| The [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]] (MHRA) has a similar role in the UK.
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| ==Education== <!--T:32-->
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| Students of pharmacology are trained as Biomedical Scientists, studying the effects of drugs on living organisms. This can lead to new drug discoveries, as well as a better understanding of the way in which the human body works.
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| Students of pharmacology must have detailed working knowledge of aspects of physiology, pathology and chemistry. During a typical degree they will cover areas such as (but not limited to) Biochemistry, Biology, Physiology, Genetics, Medical Microbiology and Neuroscience.
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| Whereas a pharmacy student will eventually work in a pharmacy dispensing medications, a pharmacologist will typically work within a laboratory setting. Careers for a pharmacologist include academic positions (medical and non-medical), governmental positions, private industrial positions, science writing, scientific patents and law, consultation, biotech and pharmaceutical employment, the alcohol industry, food industry, forensics/law enforcement, and public health or environmental/ecological sciences.
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| == See also == <!--T:36--> | |
| * '''[[Glossary of pharmacology]]''' | | * '''[[Glossary of pharmacology]]''' |
| * '''[[Dictionary of pharmacology]]''' | | * '''[[Dictionary of pharmacology]]''' |
| * '''[[Pharmacology terms A-Z]]''' | | * [[Drug]] |
| {{drugs bottom}}
| | * [[Pharmacist]] |
| | * [[Drug development]] |
| | * [[Pharmacovigilance]] |
| | * [[Pharmaceutical industry]] |
| | * [[Evidence-based medicine]] |
| {{Pharmacology}} | | {{Pharmacology}} |
| {{Pharmacomodulation}} | | {{Pharmacomodulation}} |
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| [[Category:Biochemistry]] | | [[Category:Biochemistry]] |
| [[Category:Life sciences industry]] | | [[Category:Life sciences industry]] |
| <gallery>
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| File:Constant tempertature bath for isolated organs Wellcome M0013241.jpg|Pharmacology
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| File:Raw opium.jpg|Pharmacology
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| File:Morphin - Morphine.svg|Pharmacology
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| File:Areas within Pharmacology.svg|Pharmacology
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| File:Pharmacologyprism.jpg|Pharmacology
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| File:Toxicology Research at FDA (NCTR 1193) (6009043040).jpg|Pharmacology
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| File:Drug discovery cycle.svg|Pharmacology
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| File:Dose response antagonist.jpg|Pharmacology
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| File:Cholinergic synapse.svg|Pharmacology
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| </gallery>
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