United Kingdom

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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,^{[lower-alpha 1]}

is a country in northwestern Europe, off the coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland,^{[lower-alpha 2]}

with a population of over 69 million in 2024. The UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles, covering Script error: No such module "convert"..^{[lower-alpha 3]}

It shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea, while maintaining sovereignty over the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories. The capital and largest city of England and the UK is London; Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The British Isles have been continuously inhabited since the Neolithic. In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began. The Roman departure between 383 and 410 was followed by Anglo-Saxon settlement beginning around 450. In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Over the 17th century the role of the British monarchy was reduced, particularly as a result of the English Civil War. In 1707 the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united under the Treaty of Union to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts of Union 1800 incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 as the Irish Free State, and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 created the present United Kingdom.

The UK became the first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the Pax Britannica between 1815 and 1914. The British Empire was the leading economic power for most of the 19th century, a position supported by its agricultural prosperity, its role as a dominant trading nation, a massive industrial capacity, significant technological achievements, and the rise of 19th-century London as the world's principal financial centre. At its height in the 1920s, the empire encompassed around a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the largest in history. However, its involvement in the First World War and in the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power, and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies.

The UK is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy^{[lower-alpha 4]}

with three distinct jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters. A developed country with an advanced economy, the UK ranks amongst the largest economies by nominal GDP and is one of the world's largest exporters and importers. As a nuclear state with one of the highest defence budgets, the UK maintains one of the strongest militaries in Europe. British culture is globally influential, notably in the Anglosphere and the Commonwealth; its soft power influence is observable in the legal and political systems of many former colonies, and in its exports of language, literature, theatre, cinema, music, art and sport. A great power, the UK is part of numerous international organisations.

Etymology and terminology[edit]

The Acts of Union 1707 declared that the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".^{[lower-alpha 5]}

The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706(link). {{{website}}}. Scots History Online.

Accessed 23 August 2011.

, 
  
 Constitutional & Administrative Law. online version, 
 8th edition, 
 Abingdon:Routledge, 
 2011, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-56301-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref> The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used for the former Kingdom of Great Britain, although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain".<ref>"After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great BritainTemplate:'", The American Pageant, Volume 1, Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 Great Britain was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3, Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265 (1895);

Gascoigne, Bamber. History of Great Britain (from 1707)(link). {{{website}}}. History World.

Accessed 18 July 2011.

</ref> The Acts of Union 1800 formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".<ref>,

 The Irish Civil War 1922–23. online version, 
  
 Bloomsbury USA, 
 2008, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-84603-270-7,</ref>

Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are widely referred to as countries.<ref>

Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements(link). ISO 3166-2. International Organization for Standardization. 15 December 2011.

Accessed 28 May 2012.

</ref> The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe it.<ref name="page823">

Countries within a country(link). {{{website}}}. Prime Minister's Office. 10 January 2003.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref> Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions, refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".<ref>

Statistical bulletin: Regional Labour Market Statistics(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 5 March 2014.

13.4% Fall In Earnings Value During Recession(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 5 March 2014.

</ref> Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".<ref>,

 An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict, 
  
 Lewiston, New York:Edwin Mellen Press, 
 2000, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7734-7711-7, , 
  
 A Place Apart, 
  
 London:Penguin, 
 1979, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-14-005030-1,</ref> With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".<ref>, 
  
 Interpreting Northern Ireland, 
  
 Oxford:Clarendon Press, 
 1991, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-827380-6,</ref>

The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.<ref> ,

 Guardian Unlimited Style Guide Full text, 
 , 
 Guardian News and Media Limited, 
 19 December 2008, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 23 August 2011.

,

 BBC style guide (Great Britain) Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 19 August 2002, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 23 August 2011.

Key facts about the United Kingdom(link). Government, citizens and rights. HM Government.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref> It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.<ref>New Oxford American Dictionary: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."</ref> The word England is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK.<ref>"When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." —

ISBN 978-0-582-41686-4

England OR United Kingdom (UK)? | Vocabulary | EnglishClub(link). englishclub.com.

Accessed 16 October 2022.

</ref>

The term "Britain" is used as a synonym for Great Britain,<ref>

Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary(link). dictionary.cambridge.org.

Accessed 19 June 2018.

Definition of Britain in English by Oxford Dictionaries(link). Oxford Dictionaries – English.

</ref><ref name="Britain-Col">

Britain definition and meaning(link). collinsdictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary.

Accessed 19 June 2018.

</ref> but also sometimes for the United Kingdom.<ref>

Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners(link). learnersdictionary.com. Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary.

Accessed 19 June 2018.

</ref><ref name="Britain-Col" /> Usage is mixed: the style guide of the UK Government prefers the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" (except when referring to embassies^{[lower-alpha 6]}

),<ref>

Style guide: A to Z(link). {{{website}}}. UK Government. 21 November 2024.

</ref> while other government documents acknowledge that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide"> Permanent Committee on Geographical Names. Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom(link). gov.uk. UK Government. 17 May 2023.

Accessed 17 June 2018.

</ref> The UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide" /> The BBC historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.<ref>

BBC News style guide – Names(link). BBC Academy. BBC.

Accessed 9 November 2019.

Alphabetical checklist(link). BBC News. BBC.

Accessed 17 June 2018.

</ref>

The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and nationality.<ref>,

 Constitutional and administrative law. online version, 
 14th edition, 
 Harlow:Pearson Longman, 
 2007, 
  
 Volume: 1, 
 ISBN 978-1-4058-1207-8, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref>^{[lower-alpha 7]}

People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British, English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish or Irish;<ref>

Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself?(link). Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010. ARK – Access Research Knowledge.

Accessed 1 July 2010.

</ref> or as having a combination of different national identities.<ref>

Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales(link). Office for National Statistics.

Accessed 25 June 2020.

, 
  
 Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom. online version, 
  
 Amsterdam University Press, 
 2006, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-90-5629-428-1, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020. 
 Pages: 275–277,</ref>

History[edit]

Prior to the Treaty of Union[edit]

Settlement by Cro-Magnons of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.<ref>"Ancient skeleton was 'even older' Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.</ref> The island has been continuously inhabited since the last retreat of ice around 11,500 years ago.<ref>

A 12,000-year story - revealing the history of settlers in Britain from the end of the Ice Age to the present day | University of Oxford(link). ox.ac.uk.

9 February 2018.

Accessed 6 July 2025.

</ref> By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.<ref>,

 Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. online version, 
  
 Santa Barbara, CA:ABC-CLIO, 
 2006, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0,</ref>

The Roman conquest, beginning in AD 43, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales, Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).<ref>,

 The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales, 
  
 Cardiff:University of Wales Press, 
 2008, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6,</ref> Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.<ref>

</ref> Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)<ref>,

 A History of Scotland. online version, 
  
 London:Penguin, 
 1991, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-14-013649-4, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 18–19, Ewan, 
  
 Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots, 
  
 Edinburgh:Canongate, 
 1999, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-86241-874-8, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 8–15,</ref> united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.<ref>Christopher, 
  
 The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland. online version, 
  
 Cambridge University Press, 
 1990, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-521-39552-6,</ref>

In 1066 the Normans invaded England from northern France. After conquering England they seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture.<ref>,

 Feudalism. online version, 
  
 University of Toronto, 
 1996, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8020-7158-3,</ref> The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures.<ref>, 
  
 The Debate on the Norman Conquest. online version, 
  
 Manchester University Press, 
 1999, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7190-4913-2, 
  
  
 Accessed: 20 March 2023. 
 Pages: 115–122,</ref> Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and tried unsuccessfully to annex Scotland. Asserting its independence in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in near-constant conflict with England.<ref>

The Declaration of Arbroath(link). NMS.

3 June 2023.

Accessed 6 July 2025.

</ref>

In 1215 Magna Carta was the first document to state that no government was above the law and that citizens have rights protecting them.<ref>

Magna Carta(link). {{{website}}}. parliament.uk.

Accessed 27 May 2024.

The contents of Magna Carta(link). {{{website}}}. parliament.uk.

Accessed 27 May 2024.

Magna Carta Key Facts(link). {{{website}}}. Britannica.

Accessed 27 May 2024.

</ref>

The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.<ref>Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years' War" Archived 14 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. BBC History.</ref> Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country.<ref>The Reformation in England and Scotland Archived 15 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> The English Reformation ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and established the Church of England. It defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs.<ref>

English Reformation c1527-1590(link). The National Archives.

Accessed 20 January 2023.

</ref> Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England,<ref>

</ref> and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.<ref>Mark,

 A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms. online version, 
  
 Oxford:Blackwell, 
 1999, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 171–172,</ref> In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.<ref>Nicholas P., 
  
 Making Ireland British, 1580–1650. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, 
 2003, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-925905-2, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 189–200,</ref>

In 1603 the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI of Scotland inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal and religious institutions.<ref>Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85534-380-1; Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-902930-16-9.</ref>

In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I, and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.<ref>

Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660(link). {{{website}}}. Archontology.org. 14 March 2010.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref>

Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system.<ref>Richard,

 The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702). online version, 
  
 Read Books, 
 2007, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-4067-0897-4, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref> With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power and the interest in voyages of discovery led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America and the Caribbean.<ref>

Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy(link). Royal Navy History. Institute of Naval History.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

Nicholas,

 The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, 
 1998, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-924676-2, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref>

Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667 and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments.

Union of England and Scotland[edit]

On 1 May 1707 the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the Acts of Union 1707 between the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland.<ref>

Articles of Union with Scotland 1707(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 19 October 2008.

Acts of Union 1707(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 6 January 2011.

Treaty (act) of Union 1706(link). {{{website}}}. Scottish History online.

Accessed 3 February 2011.

</ref> In the 18th century cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole, who is considered the de facto first prime minister from 1721 to 1742. A series of Jacobite uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of clan chiefs. The British colonies in North America that broke away in the American War of Independence became the United States. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.<ref>Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad Archived 28 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, p. 73.</ref>

British merchants played a leading part in the Atlantic slave trade, mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial slave ships transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa.<ref>Kenneth,

 Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, USA, 
 2007, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1, 
  
  
 Accessed: 5 October 2020.</ref> The slaves were taken to work on plantations, principally in the Caribbean but also in North America.<ref>Kenneth, 
  
 Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, US, 
 2007, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1, 
  
  
 Accessed: 5 October 2020.</ref> However, with pressure from the abolitionist movement, Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.<ref>Sailing against slavery Archived 3 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC Devon. 2007.; Paul E., 
  
 Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. online version, 
 2nd edition, 
 New York:Cambridge University Press, 
 2000, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-521-78012-4,</ref>

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland[edit]

In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.<ref>

The Act of Union(link). {{{website}}}. Act of Union Virtual Library.

Accessed 15 May 2006.

</ref>

After the defeat of France at the end of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815) the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).<ref>Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN 978-2-7605-1588-8.</ref> Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as the Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace amongst the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon<ref>P.,

 The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914, 
  
 London:Routledge, 
 2001, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-26672-7,; Niall, 
  
 Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. online version, 
  
 New York:Basic Books, 
 2004, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-465-02328-8,</ref><ref>

</ref> and adopted the role of global policeman.<ref>Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-86189-202-7.</ref><ref>Andrew,

 The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, 
 1998, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6,</ref> From 1853 to 1856 Britain took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia.<ref>Benn, David Wedgwood."The Crimean War and its lessons for today".International Affairs.March 2012;88(2)

387–391.doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x.</ref> Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America.<ref>Andrew,

 The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. online version, 
  
 Oxford University Press, 
 1998, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6,; P.J., 
  
 The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. online version, 
  
 Cambridge University Press, 
 1996, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020. 
 Pages: 156–157,</ref>

Throughout the Victorian era (1837–1901) political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise, with the 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.<ref>Richard S.,

 Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present. online version, 
  
 New York:Facts on File, 
 2003, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8160-4474-0,</ref> By the late 19th century the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury initiated a period of imperial expansion in Africa, maintained a policy of "splendid isolation" in Europe, and attempted to contain the influence of the Russian Empire in Afghanistan and Persia, in what came to be known as the Great Game.<ref>Fromkin, David."The Great Game in Asia".Foreign Affairs.1980;58(4)

936–951.doi:10.2307/20040512.Full text.</ref> During this time Canada, Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status.<ref>,

 World War I: People, Politics, and Power, 
  
 New York:Britannica Educational Publishing, 
 2009, 
 Series: America at War, 
  
 ISBN 978-1-61530-048-8,</ref> At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States.<ref>Paul, 
  
 Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid. online version, 
  
 Emerald Group Publishing, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-78190-670-5, 
  
  
 Accessed: 21 October 2020.</ref> The Edwardian era (1901–1910) saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while the Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote.<ref>Sophia A. Van Wingerden, The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928 (1999) ch 1.</ref>

World wars and partition of Ireland[edit]

Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,<ref>Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. ISBN 978-0-04-445109-9.</ref> British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western Front.<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.<ref name="Westwell&Cove">Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). History of World War I, Volume 3. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. ISBN 978-0-7614-7231-5.</ref>

The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the Representation of the People Act 1918.<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> After the war Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George, the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.<ref>Turner, J. (1988). Britain and the First World War. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-04-445109-9.</ref>

By the mid-1920s most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes.<ref>

100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough(link). Ofcom.

15 June 2020.

Accessed 17 November 2020.

</ref><ref> Linfoot, Matthew. History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio(link). BBC.

Accessed 18 September 2022.

</ref> Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936.<ref>

History of the BBC: 1920s(link). BBC.

Accessed 18 September 2022.

</ref> The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921.<ref>SR&O 1921/533 of 3 May 1921.</ref> A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.<ref>

The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921(link). CAIN Web Service.

Accessed 15 May 2006.

</ref> The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926. Still suffering from the long-term economic effects of the First World War, Britain was severely impacted by the Great Depression (1929–1932), which intensified hardship in old industrial areas in traditional sectors, led to mass unemployment peaking near 3 million, and precipitated widespread political instability and social unrest. A coalition government was formed in 1931.<ref>Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-415-03719-8.</ref>

Nonetheless, Britain was described as "a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."<ref name="Edgerton2012">David,

 Britain's War Machine. online version, 
  
 Penguin, 
  
  
  
  
  
  
 Accessed: 10 May 2020.;

Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War(link). Reviews in History.

Accessed 10 May 2020.

</ref> After Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its empire continued the war against Germany.<ref name="Edgerton2012" />

In 1940 the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign. British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe. The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to the American Manhattan Project, whose task was to build a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{{last}}},

 Septimus H. Paul, 
  
 Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952. online version, 
  
 Ohio State U.P., 
 2000, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8142-0852-6, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 1–5,</ref>

Post-war 20th century[edit]

The United Kingdom was one of the Big Three powers (with the United States and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world;<ref>,

 Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945. online version, 
  
 Rowman & Littlefield, 
 2005, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8476-9416-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 19 March 2016.; Brian, 
  
 The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives. online version, 
  
 Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 
  
  
  
  
  
  
 Accessed: 25 August 2015.</ref> it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It worked closely with the United States to establish the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and NATO.<ref>

The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR(link). {{{website}}}.

22 July 2010.

Accessed 24 January 2018.

</ref> The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the American Marshall Plan,<ref> ,

 Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S. Full text, 
 The New York Times, 
  
 28 December 2006, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 25 August 2011.

</ref> but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.<ref> Reynolds, David,

 Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review Full text, 
 The Guardian, 
  
 17 April 2011, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 10 May 2020.

</ref>

In the immediate post-war years the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly affected British society in the following decades.<ref>Martin,

Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain,

Manchester University Press,
1997,

ISBN 978-0-7190-4833-3,

Pages: 225–233,</ref> Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.<ref>Stephen J.,

Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. online version,

London; New York:Routledge,
1996,

ISBN 978-0-415-13103-2,

Pages: 173–199,</ref> The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position after its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable.<ref>Judith,

The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. online version,

Oxford University Press,
1998,

ISBN 978-0-19-924679-3,

Accessed: 22 July 2009. p. 319.</ref><ref>Wm. Roger,

Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. online version,

I.B. Tauris,
2006,

ISBN 978-1-84511-347-6,

Accessed: 22 July 2009. p. 337.</ref><ref>David,

The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980. online version,

Yale University Press,
2000,

ISBN 978-0-300-09314-8,

Accessed: 22 July 2009. p. 146.</ref> Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.<ref>Klaus,

A companion to Europe since 1945. online version,

Chichester:Wiley-Blackwell,
2009,

ISBN 978-1-4051-0612-2,

Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref> Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.<ref>

Country List(link). {{{website}}}. Commonwealth Secretariat. 19 March 2009.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref>

The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal, with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane, in 1952, but the post-war limitations of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades the UK became a more multiracial and multicultural society.<ref>Christina,

 Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse. online version, 
  
 Aldershot:Ashgate, 
 2008, 
 Series: Studies in migration and diaspora, 
  
 ISBN 978-0-7546-7158-9, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref> Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the United Kingdom's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. The United Kingdom was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 in 1969.<ref>"A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds".Contemporary British History.3 April 2021;35(2)

284–313.doi:10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589.Full text.</ref>

In the decades-long process of European integration the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67 per cent voted to stay in it.<ref> ,

 1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
  
  
  
 Accessed on: 8 March 2015.

</ref> When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states.

From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland experienced communal and paramilitary violence, sometimes affecting other parts of the UK, known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement.<ref>Arthur,

 The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement. online version, 
  
 London:Routledge, 
 2005, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-32788-6,; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Jack, 
  
 Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland. online version, 
  
 New York:Henry Holt, 
 1999, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8050-6087-4,; Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-84631-065-2.</ref> Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.<ref>Peter, 
  
 British politics since 1945, 
  
 Oxford:Blackwell, 
 1995, 
 Series: Making contemporary Britain, 
  
 ISBN 978-0-631-19075-2, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 164–223,</ref>

In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and the Falkland Islands, leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum. From 1984 the British economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.<ref>,

 Applied Economics. online version, 
 11th edition, 
 Harlow:Financial Times Press, 
 2007, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-273-70822-3, 
  
  
 Accessed: 26 December 2010.</ref> Another British Overseas Territory, Gibraltar,<ref>Template:Cite wikisource</ref> is a key military base; a referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected.

Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref>Keating, Michael."Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom".Publius: The Journal of Federalism.1 January 1998;28(1)

217–234.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948.</ref> The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO.<ref name="David M. McCourt">David,

 Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics. online version, 
  
 University of Michigan Press, 
 2014, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-472-07221-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 21 October 2020.</ref>

21st century[edit]

The United Kingdom broadly supported the United States' approach to the "war on terror" in the early 21st century.<ref> McSmith, Andy,

 The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 5 July 2016, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 17 February 2022.

</ref> British troops fought in the war in Afghanistan, but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq, which saw the largest protest in British history in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair.<ref> Adams, Tim,

 'A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world? Full text, 
 The Observer, 
  
 11 February 2023, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 5 June 2023.

</ref>

The Great Recession (2007–2010) severely affected the British economy,<ref name="Latest UK GDP data">

Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices)(link). {{{website}}}. Office for National Statistics. 20 December 2013.

Accessed 28 July 2023.

</ref> and was followed by a period of weak growth and stagnation.<ref> Harari, Daniel. Low growth: The economy's biggest challenge(link). House of Commons Library.

16 July 2024.

Accessed 16 April 2025.

</ref><ref> ,

 A Lost Decade Worse Than Japan's Threatens to Change UK Forever Full text, 
 Bloomberg News, 
  
 12 March 2023, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 16 April 2025.

</ref> The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.<ref> ,

 What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now? Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 7 November 2022, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 July 2023.

</ref> A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7 per cent to remain part of the United Kingdom.<ref>

Scottish independence referendum – Results(link). BBC News.

Accessed 18 February 2022.

</ref>

In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the UK voted to leave the European Union (EU).<ref> ,

 In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U. Full text, 
 , 
  
 24 June 2016, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 24 June 2016.

</ref> The UK left the EU in 2020.<ref> ,

 Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 1 January 2021, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 18 February 2022.

</ref> On 1 May 2021 the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, a free trade agreement between the UK and the EU, came into force.<ref name="commission.europa.eu">

The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 25 March 2023.

</ref><ref>

Free Trade Agreements EU-UK(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 12 September 2025.

</ref>

The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the British economy, caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021.<ref name="GOVUK">

Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK(link). gov.uk. Government of the United Kingdom.

Accessed 15 April 2020.

</ref><ref>

Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020(link). ons.gov.uk. Government of the United Kingdom.

Accessed 2 August 2020.

</ref><ref> Walker, Andrew,

 Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 10 June 2020, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 2 August 2020.

</ref> The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine. Developing a vaccine in the UK allowed the rollout to be amongst the fastest in the world.<ref>

Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination(link). NHS.

8 December 2020.

</ref><ref>

Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved(link). UK Government.

</ref>

Geography[edit]

The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately Script error: No such module "convert".,^{[lower-alpha 3]}

<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement" /> with a land area of Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement" /> It occupies the major part of the British Isles<ref>Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."</ref> and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands, meaning it comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref name="ONS Geography Guide">

A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography (2023)(link). Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. 4 February 2025.

Accessed 14 May 2025.

</ref>

Geographically, the United Kingdom lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within Script error: No such module "convert". of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.<ref name="factbook">

United Kingdom(link). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.

Accessed 21 January 2007.

</ref>

The nearby island polities of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are Crown Dependencies, in union with the British monarch, but do not strictly form part of the United Kingdom or any of its three jurisdictions or four countries, although the British government retains responsibility for their external affairs. The Isle of Man lies roughly midway between Great Britain and the island of Ireland in the Irish Sea, while the Channel Islands lie just off the northern French coast.

The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London was chosen as the defining point of the Prime Meridian<ref> ROG Learning Team. The Prime Meridian at Greenwich(link). Royal Museums Greenwich.

23 August 2002.

Accessed 11 September 2012.

</ref> at the International Meridian Conference in 1884.<ref> ,

 Greenwich Royal Observatory: How the Prime Meridian line is actually 100 metres away from where it was believed to be Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 13 August 2015, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 13 December 2018.

</ref>

The UK lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N, and longitudes 9° W and 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a Script error: No such module "convert". land boundary with the Republic of Ireland<ref name="factbook" /> and has a Script error: No such module "convert". coastline.<ref name="NI coastline">

Northern Ireland Coastal and Marine Forum(link). {{{website}}}. Northern Ireland Costal and Marine Forum.

Accessed 13 March 2025.

</ref> The length of coastline of Great Britain plus its principal islands is about Script error: No such module "convert". long, with the coastline of the main island Great Britain being Script error: No such module "convert". of that,<ref name="UK coastline"> Darkes, Giles. How long is the UK coastline?(link). {{{website}}}. The British Cartographic Society. January 2008.

Accessed 24 January 2015.

</ref> though measurements can vary greatly due to the coastline paradox.<ref> Weiner, Sophie. Why it's Impossible to Accurately Measure a Coastline(link). Popular Mechanics.

3 March 2018.

Accessed 29 June 2024.

</ref> It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at Script error: No such module "convert". (Script error: No such module "convert". underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.<ref>

The Channel Tunnel(link). {{{website}}}. Eurotunnel.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref>

The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests, English Lowlands beech forests, North Atlantic moist mixed forests, and Caledonian conifer forests.<ref>"An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm".BioScience.2017;67(6)

534–545.doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014.PMID:28608869.PMC:5451287.</ref> The area of woodland in the UK was estimated to be 3.25 million hectares in 2023, which represents 13 per cent of its land area.<ref>

Woodland Statistics, Key findings(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 8 July 2023.

</ref>

Climate[edit]

Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round.<ref name="factbook" /> The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below Script error: No such module "convert". or rising above Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref>

Hottest day of each year from 1900(link). trevorharley.com.

Accessed 23 November 2019.

Coldest day of each year from 1900(link). trevorharley.com.

Accessed 23 November 2019.

</ref> Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a subpolar oceanic climate. Higher elevations in Scotland experience a continental subarctic climate and the mountains experience a tundra climate.<ref>

English: A map of Köppen climate types in the United Kingdom (SVG version)(link). {{{website}}}.

9 August 2016.

Accessed 23 November 2019.

</ref>

The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,<ref name="factbook" /> although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.<ref>

Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream)(link). UK Climate Projections. Met Office.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref>

The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom was 1,339.7 hours between 1971 and 2000,<ref name="ukaverages">

UK 1971–2000 averages(link). {{{website}}}. Met Office.

Accessed 4 August 2007.

</ref> which is just under 30% of the maximum possible. Kingdom citation needed ^{(May 2025)}

The hours of sunshine vary from 1,200 to about 1,580 hours per year.<ref name="met off climate series">

UK temperature, rainfall and sunshine time series(link). Met Office.

Accessed 31 December 2022.

</ref>

Climate change has serious impacts on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 was attributed to it.<ref>

Families hit by £605 food bill as extreme weather and energy crisis bites(link). Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit.

28 November 2023.

Accessed 19 July 2024.

</ref> In 2024 the United Kingdom ranked 5th out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index.<ref>

2024 Environmental Performance Index(link). Environmental Performance Index.

Accessed 27 May 2025.

</ref> A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050.<ref>

UK net zero target(link). Institute for Government.

20 April 2020.

Accessed 20 March 2024.

</ref>Template:Update after

Topography[edit]

England accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref> ,

 England – Profile Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 11 February 2010, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 9 October 2010.

</ref> Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,<ref name="Atlapedia"> Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd. United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online(link). Atlapedia.com.

Accessed 26 October 2010.

^{[better source needed]}

</ref> with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the Tees–Exe line which roughly divides the UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include Cornwall, the New Forest, the South Downs and the Norfolk Broads. Upland areas include the Lake District, the Pennines, the Yorkshire Dales, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn, and the Humber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike, at Script error: No such module "convert". in the Lake District; its largest island is the Isle of Wight.

Scotland accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref>

Scotland Facts(link). {{{website}}}. Scotland Online Gateway.

Accessed 16 July 2008.

</ref> This includes nearly 800 islands,<ref> Winter, Jon,

 The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 1 June 2000, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 8 March 2015.

</ref> notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK. The Highlands to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the Cairngorms, Loch Lomond and The Trossachs and Ben Nevis which at Script error: No such module "convert".<ref>

Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller(link). {{{website}}}. Ordnance Survey. 18 March 2016.

Accessed 9 September 2018.

</ref> is the highest point in the British Isles.<ref>

Ben Nevis Weather(link). {{{website}}}. Ben Nevis Weather.

Accessed 26 October 2008.

</ref>

Wales accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref> ,

 Profile: Wales Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 9 June 2010, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 7 November 2010.

</ref> It is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and Mid Wales. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Lang/langx' not found.) which, at Script error: No such module "convert"., is the highest peak in Wales.<ref name="Atlapedia" /> Wales has over Script error: No such module "convert". of coastline including the Pembrokeshire Coast.<ref name="UK coastline" /> Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn).

Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of Script error: No such module "convert". and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at Script error: No such module "convert"., is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,<ref>

Geography of Northern Ireland(link). {{{website}}}. University of Ulster.

Accessed 22 May 2006.

</ref> Lough Erne, which has over 150 islands, and the Giant's Causeway, which is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at Script error: No such module "convert"..<ref name="Atlapedia" />

Government and politics[edit]

Charles III
King

Keir Starmer
Prime Minister

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy<ref>The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?" Archived 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 July 2013; "United Kingdom" Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2013</ref> operating under the Westminster system, otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy".<ref>"Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies".Journal of Democracy.2014;25(2)

35–36.doi:10.1353/jod.2014.0032.Full text.</ref> It is a centralised, unitary state<ref>

Lewer, Andrew. The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed(link). New Statesman.

5 May 2021.

Accessed 3 July 2023.

</ref><ref>

Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy(link). Centre for Cities.

Accessed 3 July 2023.

</ref> wherein the Parliament of the United Kingdom is sovereign.<ref>

Parliamentary Sovereignty(link). parliament.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> Parliament is made up of the elected House of Commons, the appointed House of Lords and the Crown (as personified by the monarch).^{[lower-alpha 8]}

Parliament(link). parliament.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> The main business of Parliament takes place in the two houses,<ref name="parliament.uk" /> but royal assent is required for a bill to become an act of Parliament (that is, statute law).<ref>

Royal Assent(link). parliament.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the British constitution is uncodified, consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary statutes, judge-made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions.<ref> Carter, Sarah. A Guide To the UK Legal System(link). {{{website}}}. University of Kent at Canterbury.

Accessed 16 May 2006.

</ref> Nevertheless, the Supreme Court recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law, democracy and upholding international law.<ref>See R (Miller) v Prime Minister [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor [2017] UKSC 51 Archived 4 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, [67] ff (rule of law), R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), R v Lyons [2002] UKHL 44 Archived 22 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, [27] (international law).</ref>

King Charles III is the monarch and head of state of the United Kingdom and 14 other independent sovereign states, referred to as "Commonwealth realms". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK".<ref>Robert Blackburn."The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom".Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart.2022;70

181–201.doi:10.1628/joer-2022-0009.Full text.</ref> The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the royal prerogative, is generally exercised only on the advice of ministers of the Crown responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".<ref>Bagehot, Walter (1867). The English Constitution. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103.</ref> In addition the monarch has a number of reserve powers at his disposal to uphold responsible government and prevent constitutional crises.^{[lower-alpha 9]}

The prime minister is the head of government in the United Kingdom.<ref>

The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet(link). Public services all in one place. Directgov.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref> Acting under the direction and supervision of a Cabinet of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, His Majesty's Government serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the Privy Council, promulgates statutory instruments and tenders advice to the monarch.<ref> Tim Durrant. Cabinet(link). {{{website}}}. Institute for Government. 25 March 2020.

Accessed 4 July 2023.

</ref><ref>

Parliament and Government(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 4 July 2023.

</ref><ref>{{{last}}},

 Vernon Bogdanor, 
  
 The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative. online version, 
  
 Clarendon Press, 
 1995, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-829334-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 4 July 2023.</ref> Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as First Lord of the Treasury<ref>

The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government(link). gov.uk.

1 January 2012.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,<ref>Jack,

 The Prime Ministers, 
  
 Hodder & Stoughton, 
 2020, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-5293-1214-0,</ref> Minister for the Civil Service since 1968,<ref>

Minister for the Civil Service(link). gov.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> and Minister for the Union since 2019.<ref> Woodcock, Andrew,

 Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union' Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 26 July 2021, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 19 July 2021.

Minister for the Union(link). gov.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by convention, an MP, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons.<ref>

The Cabinet Manual(link). gov.uk.

October 2011.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref><ref>Philip,

 Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution, 
  
 Manchester University Press, 
 2020, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-5261-4545-1,</ref> The prime minister as at 2025 is Sir Keir Starmer, the leader of the Labour Party.

Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, as well as the 14 British Overseas Territories, are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown.<ref>Rolen,

 Legacies of Empire: Imperial Roots of the Contemporary Global Order, 
  
 Cambridge University Press, 
 2015, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-107-10946-9, 
  
  
 Accessed: 13 April 2024.</ref>

Democratic backsliding was found by the 2026 V-Dem Democracy Report for the United Kingdom.<ref name="j496">

Democracy Report 2026, Unraveling The Democratic Era?(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 2026-03-17.

</ref>

Elections[edit]

For general elections (elections to the House of Commons), the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies, each of which is represented by one member of Parliament (MP) elected by the first-past-the-post system.<ref name="parliament.uk-2">

General elections(link). parliament.uk.

Accessed 19 July 2021.

</ref> MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP.<ref name="parliament.uk-2" /> The Conservative Party, colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the Labour Party have been the dominant political parties in the country since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a two-party system. However, since the 1920s other political parties have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.<ref> Raymond, C. Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System(link). Queen's University Belfast.

2016.

Accessed 3 July 2023.

</ref>

Administrative divisions[edit]

The geographical division of the United Kingdom into counties or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages, and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early modern period.<ref>Hackwood Frederick William: The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions (1851)</ref> Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales in 1888, Scotland in 1889 and Ireland in 1898, meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK,<ref> United Nations Economic and Social Council. Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names(link). {{{website}}}. UN Statistics Division. August 2007.

Accessed 21 October 2008.

</ref> and England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland each have their own distinct jurisdictions.<ref>,

 The Scottish Legal System. online version, 
  
 London:Bloomsbury Academic, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-5265-0633-7, 
  
  
 Accessed: 4 July 2023.;

The justice system and the constitution(link). {{{website}}}. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary.

Accessed 13 June 2023.

</ref> Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.<ref>I.M.,

 Metropolitan Government, 
  
 London:Routledge, 
 1991, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-02099-2,</ref>

Local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine regions, used primarily for statistical purposes.<ref>

Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network(link). {{{website}}}. Government Offices.

Accessed 3 July 2008.

</ref> One of the regions, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a 1998 referendum.<ref>

A short history of London government(link). {{{website}}}. Greater London Authority.

Accessed 4 October 2008.

</ref>

Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas, as is the Highland Council, which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="political-studies-association">

STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007(link). {{{website}}}. Political Studies Association.

Accessed 2 August 2008.

</ref>

Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right.<ref name="unitary">

Unitary authorities(link). {{{website}}}. Welsh Government.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref> Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.<ref name="unitary" />

Local government in Northern Ireland since 1973 has been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.<ref name="Devenport"> Devenport, Mark,

 NI local government set for shake-up Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 18 November 2005, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 15 November 2008.

</ref> In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils to replace the existing system.<ref>

</ref>

Devolution[edit]

In the United Kingdom a process of devolution has transferred various powers from the UK Government to three of the four UK countries—Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales—as well as to the regions of England, which since 1999 have their own governments and parliaments that control various devolved matters.<ref>

Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland(link). {{{website}}}. United Kingdom Government.

Accessed 17 April 2013.

Country Overviews: United Kingdom(link). {{{website}}}. Transport Research Knowledge Centre.

Accessed 28 March 2010.

</ref> These powers vary and have been moved to the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government, the Northern Ireland Executive and in England, the Greater London Authority and Combined Authorities.<ref>,

 Public Law: Text, Cases, and Materials. online version, 
 5th edition, 
 Oxford University Press, 
 2023, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-19-287061-2, 
  
  
 Accessed: 13 April 2024.</ref> Amongst the devolved parliaments across the United Kingdom, the Scottish Parliament has the most extensive responsibilities for devolved powers, and has been described as "one of the most powerful devolved parliaments in the world".<ref>

The progress of devolution - Erskine May - UK Parliament(link). erskinemay.parliament.uk.

Accessed 1 March 2025.

</ref><ref>

David Mundell speech: 20 years of Scottish devolution(link). GOV.UK.

Accessed 1 March 2025.

</ref>

The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution and constitutional matters are not amongst the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly.<ref>Burrows, N.."Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998".The Modern Law Review.1999;62(2)

241–260 [p. 249].doi:10.1111/1468-2230.00203.; Elliot, M.."United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure".International Journal of Constitutional Law.2004;2(3)

545–627, 553–554.doi:10.1093/icon/2.3.545.</ref> Though in the Scotland Act 2016 and the Wales Act 2017 it states that the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government "are a permanent part of the United Kingdom's constitutional arrangements".<ref>

Scotland Act 2016(link). Gov.uk.

Accessed 28 June 2024.

</ref><ref>

Wales Act 2017(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 13 July 2024.

</ref>

In practice it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd because these institutions were created by referendums.<ref>Gamble, A.."The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom".Publius.2006;36(1)

19–35 [p. 29].doi:10.1093/publius/pjj011.</ref> The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.<ref>Meehan, E.."The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme".Parliamentary Affairs.1999;52(1)

19–31 [p. 23].doi:10.1093/pa/52.1.19.</ref> The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through an act passed in 2020.<ref name="UKIM" />

England[edit]

Unlike Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, England does not have a separate devolved government or national parliament,<ref>

English devolution(link). {{{website}}}. Institute for Government. 21 June 2024.

Accessed 30 August 2024.

</ref> rather a process of devolution of powers from the central government to local authorities has taken place, first in 1998.<ref>

Devolution explained(link). {{{website}}}. Local Government Association.

Accessed 30 August 2024.

</ref> The Greater London Authority (GLA) was set up following a referendum in 1998. Colloquially known as City Hall, it is the devolved regional government body for Greater London. It consists of two political branches: an Executive Mayor and the London Assembly, which serves as a check and balance on the Mayor.

A Combined Authority (CA) is a type of local government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009. CAs allow a group of local authorities to pool appropriate responsibility and receive certain devolved functions from central government in order to deliver transport and economic policy more effectively over a wider area.<ref>

English devolution(link). {{{website}}}. Institute for Government. 6 March 2023.

Accessed 4 February 2024.

</ref> A Combined County Authority (CCA) is a similar type of local-government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Levelling-up and Regeneration Act 2023, but may only be formed by upper-tier authorities: county councils and unitary authorities.<ref>

Combined County Authorities – key differences to Combined Authorities(link). Local Government Lawyer.

6 April 2023.

Accessed 4 February 2024.

</ref>

Scotland[edit]

Since 1999 Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament.<ref name="Scottish Parliament">

Devolved and Reserved Powers(link). parliament.scot. Scottish Parliament.

Accessed 28 December 2023.

</ref><ref> ,

 Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 8 April 1999, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 21 October 2008.

</ref> Scotland has the most devolved powers of any of the three devolved parliaments in the United Kingdom, with full legislative control over education, law and order, the economy, healthcare, elections, Crown Estate Scotland, the planning system and housing.<ref>

Devolved and Reserved Matters - Visit & Learn Scottish Parliament(link). {{{website}}}.

22 July 2017.

Accessed 1 March 2025.

</ref>

Additional powers were transferred to the Scottish Parliament via the Scotland Act 2012 and the Scotland Act 2016, such as some taxation powers, including full control of income tax on income earned through employment, Land and Buildings Transaction Tax, Landfill Tax, Aggregates Levy, Air Departure Tax and Revenue Scotland, as well as aspects of the energy network, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and onshore oil and gas licensing.<ref name="Devolved Matters in Scotland">

What the Scottish Government does(link). {{{website}}}. Scottish Government.

Accessed 8 August 2019.

</ref><ref name="Scottish Parliament" /> Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an act of the UK Parliament passed in 2020.Template:Refn

The Scottish Government is a Scottish National Party (SNP) minority government,<ref>

Humza Yousaf's precarious position puts the SNP – and Scotland – at a crossroads(link). Institute for Government.

26 April 2024.

Accessed 26 April 2024.

</ref> led by the first minister, currently John Swinney, the leader of the SNP. In 2014 the Scottish independence referendum was held, with 55.3 per cent voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7 per cent voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="political-studies-association" />

The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government. It is made up of 129 elected members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). It is the law-making body of Scotland, and thus it scrutinises the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions.<ref name="Devolved Matters in Scotland"/>

Wales[edit]

Since 1999 Wales has had a devolved national government and legislature, known as the Senedd. Elections to the Senedd use the additional member system. It has more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.<ref> ,

 Structure and powers of the Assembly Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 9 April 1999, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 21 October 2008.

</ref> The Senedd can legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament by Acts of Senedd Cymru. The Welsh Government is currently a Welsh Labour minority government led by the first minister, Eluned Morgan. Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself.

Northern Ireland[edit]

The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, which brought to an end a 30-year period of unionist-nationalist communal conflict known as the Troubles. The Agreement was confirmed by referendum and implemented later that year. It established power sharing arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the Northern Ireland Executive and the Northern Ireland Assembly respectively.<ref>

Good Friday Agreement: What is it?(link). BBC News.

3 April 2023.

Accessed 11 April 2024.

</ref> Elections to the Assembly use the single transferable vote system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland.<ref>

Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland(link). GOV.UK.

8 May 2019.

Accessed 11 June 2024.

</ref> The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly.<ref name="northernireland1">

Your Executive(link). {{{website}}}. Northern Ireland Executive. 25 September 2015.

Accessed 14 August 2016.

</ref> The first minister and deputy first minister of Northern Ireland are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland.<ref> ,

 Stormont: Why were NI leaders given unequal job titles? Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 15 May 2022, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 2 February 2024.

</ref><ref>

Northern Ireland Executive: Ministerial Code(link). {{{website}}}.

28 September 2015.

Accessed 2 February 2024.

</ref> Local government in Northern Ireland since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities.<ref name="Devenport" />

Foreign relations[edit]

The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a member of NATO, AUKUS, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7, the G20, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe and the OSCE.<ref> May, Theresa. Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50(link). {{{website}}}.

29 March 2017.

Accessed 19 June 2017.

</ref> It maintains the British Council, an organisation specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities in over 100 countries. The UK remains a great power with considerable political, cultural, economic and military influence.<ref name="PaulWirtz2004">,

 Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st century. online version, 
  
 Stanford University Press, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8047-5017-2,</ref><ref>

,

 United Kingdom country profile Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 10 May 2012, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 6 July 2025.

</ref>

The United Kingdom is said to have a "Special Relationship" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "Entente cordiale" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries;<ref> Swaine, Jon. Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown(link). The Telegraph.

13 January 2009.

Accessed 30 May 2011.

</ref><ref>,

 Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century, 
 illustrated edition, 
 London:Routledge, 
 2007, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-39162-7,</ref> the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and co-operate through the British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference and the British-Irish Council. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and military engagements.<ref>

The Committee Office, House of Commons. DFID's expenditure on development assistance(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament. 19 February 2009.

Accessed 28 April 2013.

</ref>

Military[edit]

The British Armed Forces consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service), the British Army and the Royal Air Force.<ref>

Ministry of Defence(link). {{{website}}}. Ministry of Defence.

Accessed 21 February 2012.

</ref> The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance.<ref>

Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament. 30 March 2012.

Accessed 28 April 2013.

</ref>

The armed forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO (including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps), the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Bahrain, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Oman, Qatar and Singapore.<ref>

House of Commons Hansard(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 23 October 2008.

House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002)(link). {{{website}}}. Publications.parliament.uk.

Accessed 4 March 2015.

</ref>

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute<ref name="SIPRI-2020">

Trends in Military Expenditure 2024(link). {{{website}}}. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 2025.

Accessed 28 April 2025.

</ref> and the International Institute for Strategic Studies,<ref>

The Military Balance 2025: Defence Spending and Procurement Trends(link). IISS.

Accessed 14 February 2025.

</ref> the UK had the world's sixth- or fifth-highest military expenditures in 2024. Total defence spending in 2024 was estimated at 2.3 per cent of gross domestic product.<ref>

Rishi Sunak vows to boost UK defence spending to 2.5% of GDP by 2030(link). {{{website}}}. BBC News. 24 April 2024.

Accessed 24 April 2024.

</ref> Following the end of the Cold War, defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.<ref>UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Office for National Statistics. p. 89.</ref>

Law and criminal justice[edit]

The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.<ref name="Acts of Union 1707" /> The UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords.<ref> ,

 UK Supreme Court judges sworn in Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 1 October 2009, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 6 October 2009.

Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom(link). {{{website}}}. Department for Constitutional Affairs. July 2003.

Accessed 13 May 2013.

</ref> The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies.<ref>

Role of the JCPC(link). {{{website}}}. Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

Accessed 28 April 2013.

</ref>

Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common law (or case law) principles.<ref>Andrew,

 The international survey of family law: 1996. online version, 
  
 The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff, 
 1998, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-90-411-0573-8, 
  
  
 Accessed: 29 September 2020.</ref> It originated in England in the Middle Ages and is the basis for many legal systems around the world.<ref>

Common Law(link). {{{website}}}. Britannica. 19 May 2024.

Accessed 27 May 2024.

</ref> The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases and the Crown Court for criminal cases.<ref>

The Australian courts and comparative law(link). {{{website}}}. Australian Law Postgraduate Network.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref> Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and civil-law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,<ref>

Court of Session – Introduction(link). {{{website}}}. Scottish Courts.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref> and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases.<ref>

High Court of Justiciary – Introduction(link). {{{website}}}. Scottish Courts.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref> The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.<ref>

House of Lords – Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 8 March 2015.

</ref> The criminal justice system has been characterised by low conviction rates and court delays for some crime types.<ref name="s576">"What can We Learn from Police Data About Timeliness in Rape and Serious Sexual Offence Investigations in England and Wales?".International Criminology.2022;2(3)

286–298.doi:10.1007/s43576-022-00069-8.PMC:9527390.</ref>

Crime in England and Wales increased between 1981 and 1995. Since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66% in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,<ref>

Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015(link). UK Government Web Archive. Office for National Statistics.

Accessed 16 March 2023.

</ref> according to UK crime statistics.

UK labour laws establish employment rights including a minimum wage, a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, parental leave, statutory sick pay and a pension. Same-sex marriage has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in Northern Ireland since 2020.<ref>

Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage(link). PinkNews.

3 July 2023.

Accessed 2 September 2023.

</ref> LGBT equality in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.<ref>

The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023(link). Asher & Lyric.

5 June 2023.

Accessed 20 August 2023.

</ref><ref>

Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations(link). Williams Institute.

Accessed 11 September 2023.

</ref>

Since leaving the EU most disputes under UK-EU agreements are addressed through consultation between the parties. If consultation fails to resolve the issue, either party can request arbitration, typically at the PCA in The Hague.<ref name="commission.europa.eu" /><ref>

Disputes under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement(link). {{{website}}}. Institute for Government. November 2021.

Accessed 26 January 2025.

</ref><ref>

Sandeel fishing ban to remain in place(link). BBC.

2 May 2025.

Accessed 4 May 2025.

</ref> The EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement states that the UK and EU have to cooperate and negotiate with each other with 'full mutual respect and good faith', as defined by international law.<ref>

Good Faith in Public Law(link). ox.ac.uk.

20 January 2022.

Accessed 13 May 2025.

</ref> Under the Windsor Framework, Northern Ireland matters requiring interpretation of EU law go to the ECJ, though the Stormont Brake can prevent new EU rules from taking effect.

Economy[edit]

The United Kingdom has a highly developed social market economy.<ref>"The Origins of the British Welfare State".The Journal of Interdisciplinary History.2019;50(3)

427–433.doi:10.1162/jinh_a_01448.</ref><ref name="ftms">

Applied Economics(link). {{{website}}}.

16 July 2011.

Accessed 25 September 2014.

</ref> With an estimated nominal GDP of £2.765 trillion in 2024,<ref>

</ref> it is the sixth-largest national economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe. Its currency, the pound sterling, is the fourth-most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and the world's fourth-largest reserve currency, after the United States dollar, the euro and the yen.<ref>

World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves(link). IMF Data.

Accessed 10 October 2021.

</ref> The pound sterling maintains its high nominal value through both its long history of stability and by never undergoing formal redenomination. Since 2022 the UK has been both the world's fourth-largest exporter<ref>

Exports of goods and services (BoP, current US$)(link). World Bank.

Accessed 22 September 2025.

</ref> and fourth-largest importer<ref>

Imports of goods and services (current US$)(link). World Bank.

Accessed 22 September 2025.

</ref> of goods and services. Despite having one of the highest levels of income inequality in the OECD,<ref>

House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK.(link). UK Parliament.

Accessed 1 July 2023.

</ref><ref>

Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data(link). theOECD.

Accessed 3 July 2023.

</ref> the UK has a very high HDI ranking, including when adjusted for inequality. As of 2025 the UK unemployment rate is 4.7%<ref>

UK jobs market weakens as unemployment rate rises(link). www.bbc.com.

17 July 2025.

Accessed 25 September 2025.

</ref> and the annual real GDP per head growth was 1.1%.<ref name="f919">

GDP quarterly national accounts, UK(link). Office for National Statistics.

2026.

Accessed 2026-04-24.

</ref>

HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance and economic policy. The Department for Business and Trade is responsible for business, international trade, and enterprise. The Bank of England is the UK's central bank and responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue.

Industries and services[edit]

The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.

The service sector made up around 80 per cent of the UK's GVA in 2023.<ref> Hutton, Georgina. Industries in the UK(link). UK Parliament: House of Commons Library.

3 October 2024.

Accessed 19 May 2025.

</ref> As of 2023 it is the world's second-largest exporter of services<ref>

Service exports (BoP, current US$)(link). World Bank Open Data.

Accessed 19 May 2025.

</ref> and in 2024 was the world's largest net exporter of financial services.<ref>

UK leads world in financial services trade surplus(link). TheCityUK.

15 January 2025.

Accessed 2 June 2025.

</ref> London is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a market share of 37.8 per cent in 2022 of the global turnover.<ref>

BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2025 – UK Data(link). {{{website}}}. Bank of England. 30 September 2025.

Accessed 7 December 2025.

</ref> It is the largest urban economy in Europe<ref> Florida, Richard. The Economic Power of Cities Compared to Nations(link). Bloomberg.

16 March 2017.

Accessed 22 February 2024.

</ref> and, alongside New York, the city in the world most integrated with the global economy.<ref>

World Cities 2024(link). GaWC.

Accessed 21 September 2025.

</ref> London is also one of the world's leading financial centres, ranking second in the 2025 Global Financial Centres Index.<ref name="www.longfinance.net">

GFCI 36 Rank - Long Finance(link). www.longfinance.net.

Accessed 19 May 2025.

</ref> Edinburgh, the UK's second-largest financial centre, ranks 29th in the world in the same index.<ref name="www.longfinance.net" />

The UK's manufacturing sector in 2024 was the world's 10th-largest and Europe's fourth-largest by value output.<ref>

World Bank Open Data(link). World Bank Open Data.

Accessed 5 August 2025.

</ref> At the end of 2024 manufacturing in the United Kingdom accounted for 8 per cent of the workforce and 8.6 per cent of national economic output.<ref>

Manufacturing industries: Economic indicators(link). House of Commons Library.

22 May 2025.

Accessed 1 June 2025.

</ref> As reported in 2017 the East Midlands and West Midlands (at 12.6 and 11.8 per cent respectively) were the regions with the highest proportion of employees in manufacturing. London's manufacturing sector had the lowest at 2.8 per cent.<ref>Hennik Research. Annual Manufacturing Report: 2017 (Dec. 2016) Archived 31 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine</ref>

The country's tourism sector is important to the British economy;<ref>

King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy(link). fortune.com.

25 April 2023.

Accessed 9 May 2023.

</ref> The creative industries accounted for 5.9 per cent of the UK's GVA in 2019,<ref>

DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added(link). gov.uk.

Accessed 31 January 2023.

</ref> and contributed £111 billion to the UK economy in 2018.<ref>

UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour(link). {{{website}}}. UK Government.

Accessed 21 February 2023.

</ref> Lloyd's of London, located in London, is the world's largest insurance and reinsurance market.<ref>

Lloyd's of London – value proposition(link). Lloyd's of London.

</ref> WPP plc is one of the world's biggest advertising companies and also based in London.<ref>

Rankings 2025 - Creative 100(link). WARC.

Accessed 12 June 2025.

</ref> The UK is one of Europe's leading retail markets and its largest e-commerce market.<ref>

Retail(link). {{{website}}}. great.gov.uk.

Accessed 18 January 2024.

</ref> With consumption expenditures of over US$2 trillion in 2023, it has the second-largest consumer market in Europe.<ref>

Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$)(link). World Bank Group.

Accessed 17 August 2024.

</ref> John Lewis is the UK's largest employee-owned business.<ref>

Employee owned businesses - What the evidence tells us(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 18 January 2024.

</ref>

The British automotive industry generates £47 billion of exports (12 per cent of the UK's total exports of goods).<ref name="Auto Output 2025" /> In 2024 the UK produced 779,584 passenger vehicles and 125,649 commercial vehicles; 8 out of 10 cars produced in the UK are exported overseas.<ref name="Auto Output 2025">

SMMT Motor Industry Facts 2025(link). SMMT.

15 May 2025.

Accessed 26 May 2025.

</ref> Britain is known for iconic cars like Mini and Jaguar,<ref>

Best British cars: Top 50 all-time greatest British-built cars revealed - page 2(link). Auto Express.

19 November 2020.

Accessed 9 March 2024.

</ref> as well as luxury cars such as Rolls-Royce, Bentley and Range Rover. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: 1.59 million engines were produced in 2024.<ref name="Auto Output 2025" /> It was the world's third-largest exporter of engines by value in 2023.<ref>

Combustion Engines(link). OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity.

Accessed 26 May 2025.

</ref> The UK motorsport industry has an annual turnover of around £10 billion.<ref>

UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary(link). {{{website}}}. UK Government.

Accessed 19 February 2023.

</ref> Seven of the eleven Formula One teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from McLaren, Aston Martin and Lotus.^{[lower-alpha 10]}

The aerospace industry of the UK is the second-largest in the world<ref>

United Kingdom - Country Commercial Guide: Aerospace and Defense(link). International Trade Administration.

3 November 2023.

Accessed 17 December 2024.

</ref> and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion.<ref> Tovey, Alan,

 Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings Full text, 
 The Telegraph, 
  
 29 June 2016, 
 London,

Template:Cbignore</ref> The UK space industry was worth £17.5 billion in 2020/21 and employed around 48,800 people.<ref>

UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow(link). UKspace.

27 March 2023.

</ref><ref>

UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow(link). gov.uk.

29 March 2023.

Accessed 10 August 2025.

</ref> The UK Space Agency has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space-related projects.<ref>

New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 11 March 2023.

</ref>

The British agriculture industry is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing approximately 60 per cent of the country's overall food requirements and 73 per cent of its indigenous food needs, utilising around 0.9 per cent of the labour force (292,000 workers).<ref>

UK Food Security Index 2024(link). {{{website}}}. Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs.

Accessed 19 May 2024.

Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June 2023(link). {{{website}}}. Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs.

Accessed 19 May 2024.

</ref> Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock and one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant though much reduced fishing industry, with at least 49 per cent of UK fish sustainably caught in 2020.<ref>

Sustainable fisheries: fish stocks harvested within safe limits(link). JNCC.

Accessed 14 December 2024.

</ref> The UK marine natural capital assets were estimated to have a value of £211 billion in 2021.<ref>

Marine accounts, natural capital, UK: 2021(link). ONS.

6 April 2021.

Accessed 21 May 2025.

</ref> It is rich in a variety of other natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, and silica and has an abundance of arable land.<ref>

Coal(link). BGS Minerals UK.

Accessed 7 July 2015.

</ref>

Science and technology[edit]

England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century.<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-521-34804-1.</ref> The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.<ref>Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. Template:OCLC</ref> Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science;<ref>Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924.The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-486-42551-1.</ref> from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory; and more recently Stephen Hawking, who advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.<ref>Hatt, C. (2006). Scientists and Their Discoveries Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. ISBN 978-0-237-53195-9.</ref>

The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT) is responsible for helping to develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-0-415-10015-1.</ref> In 2022, the UK produced 6.0 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8.8 per cent share of scientific citations, the fourth and third highest among G7 countries and Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Korea. The UK ranked 1st among these countries for Field-Weighted Citation Impact.<ref>

International comparison of the UK research base, 2025(link). GOV.UK.

Accessed 2025-12-07.

</ref> Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the Royal Society, Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.<ref>McCook, Alison."Is peer review broken?".The Scientist.2006;20(2)

26.Full text.</ref>

By 2024 the UK tech sector reached a value of US$1.2 trillion surpassing the combined values of the French and German sectors. Kingdom citation needed ^{(April 2026)}

Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.<ref>

UK tech sector retains #1 spot in Europe and #3 in world as sector resilience brings continued growth(link). gov.uk.

21 December 2022.

Accessed 27 May 2025.

</ref> The UK's artificial intelligence industry is the largest in Europe by value<ref>

UK AI sector most valuable in Europe, new report reveals(link). Holyrood.

11 June 2024.

Accessed 20 July 2025.

</ref> and the country ranked third globally in a 2024 report on artificial intelligence development by Stanford University.<ref>

Global AI Power Rankings: Stanford HAI Tool Ranks 36 Countries in AI(link). hai.stanford.edu.

21 November 2024.

Accessed 1 January 2025.

</ref> The UK ranked 6th in the 2025 Global Innovation Index.<ref>

GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025(link). WIPO.

Accessed 16 October 2025.

</ref><ref>,

 Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads. online version, 
  
 World Intellectual Property Organization, 
 2025, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-92-805-3797-0, 
 DOI: 10.34667/tind.58864, 
  
 Accessed: 17 October 2025.</ref>

Transport[edit]

In the UK, all traffic drives on the left, with distance and speed being measured in miles, yards and miles per hour (mph). All vehicles manufactured for use in the UK have the steering wheel situated on the right side of the vehicle. A radial road network totals Script error: No such module "convert". of main roads, Script error: No such module "convert". of motorways and Script error: No such module "convert". of paved roads.<ref name="factbook" /> The M25, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.<ref>Joe,

 Reading the Everyday. online version, 
  
 Routledge, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-134-37216-4,</ref> In 2024 there were 41.7 million licensed vehicles in the UK.<ref>

General facts and figures about roads and road use(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 31 May 2025.

</ref>

The UK has an extensive railway network of Script error: No such module "convert".. In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passengers. Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain. The UK was ranked eighth amongst national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.<ref>

The 2017 European Railway Performance Index(link). {{{website}}}. Boston Consulting Group. 18 April 2017.

Accessed 4 February 2019.

</ref>

A train runs directly from London to Paris.<ref>

London to Paris Trains(link). {{{website}}}. Eurostar.

Accessed 11 May 2024.

</ref> Called the Eurostar, it travels through the Channel Tunnel under the English Channel. At 23.5 miles long, it is the world's longest undersea tunnel.<ref>

Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe(link). {{{website}}}. Britannica. 10 May 2024.

Accessed 11 May 2024.

</ref> There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called LeShuttle. The Elizabeth line, a rail link running between East and West London, was named in honour of Queen Elizabeth II in 2016 and opened in 2022.<ref> ,

 Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 2 January 2012, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 20 June 2018.

Leftly, Mark,

 Crossrail delayed to save £1bn Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 29 August 2010, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 22 August 2017.

</ref><ref>

Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen(link). Transport for London.

</ref> Another major infrastructure project is High Speed 2 (HS2), a high-speed railway under construction since 2019. It will link London with Birmingham, with the potential to extend further north and capable of speeds of up to 225 mph.<ref>

What is HS2(link). HS2.

Accessed 22 June 2022.

</ref><ref>

HS2 Trains(link). HS2.

Accessed 24 February 2023.

</ref>

In 2023 there were 4 billion bus journeys in the UK, 1.8 billion of which were in London.<ref>

Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 Domestic Travel(link). gov.uk.

19 December 2024.

Accessed 14 March 2025.

</ref> The red double-decker bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of London and England.<ref>

Our Collection(link). {{{website}}}. icons.org.uk.

Accessed 16 August 2014.

</ref> The London bus network is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about 6 million passengers on over 700 different routes, making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.<ref>London Buses, Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007.</ref>

During 2024 British airports handled nearly 292.5 million passengers.<ref name="caastats">

Size of Reporting Airports 2024(link). {{{website}}}. Civil Aviation Authority.

Accessed 17 January 2025.

</ref> In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (83.9 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (43.2 million passengers) and Manchester Airport (30.8 million passengers).<ref name="caastats" /> London Heathrow Airport, located Script error: No such module "convert". west of the capital, is the world's second-busiest airport by international passenger traffic and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world;<ref> ,

 Heathrow 'needs a third runway' Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 25 June 2008, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 17 October 2008.

</ref> it is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as Virgin Atlantic.<ref> ,

 BMI being taken over by Lufthansa Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 29 October 2008, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 23 December 2009.

</ref> During 2023, 18.3 million passengers travelled internationally by rail and 18.1 million by sea.<ref>

Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 International Travel(link). gov.uk.

19 December 2024.

Accessed 4 March 2025.

</ref>

Energy[edit]

In 2021 the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer and 22nd-largest producer of energy.<ref name="United Kingdom Energy Profile">

United Kingdom Energy Profile(link). {{{website}}}. U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Accessed 28 February 2023.

</ref> It is home to many large energy companies, including two of the six major oil and gas companies – BP and Shell.<ref> Mason, Rowena,

 Let the battle begin over black gold Full text, 
 The Telegraph, 
  
 24 October 2009, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 26 November 2010.

Template:Cbignore; Heath, Michael,

 RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term Full text, 
 Bloomberg, 
  
 26 November 2010, 
 New York, 
  
 Accessed on: 26 November 2010.

</ref>

Renewable electricity sources provided 51 per cent of the electricity generated in the UK in 2024. Wind power was the largest source of electricity in 2024, generating 30 per cent of the UK's total electricity.<ref name="2024 Energy">Template:Cite report</ref> The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref>

In 2023 the UK had nine nuclear reactors generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity.<ref name="coal-ref">

Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom(link). {{{website}}}. World Nuclear Association.

Accessed 28 February 2023.

</ref> There are two reactors under construction and more planned.<ref>

Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom(link). {{{website}}}. World Nuclear Association. April 2013.

Accessed 9 April 2013.

</ref><ref> ,

 Nuclear energy: What you need to know Full text, 
 , 
 UK Government, 
  
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 February 2023.

</ref> In the late 1990s nuclear power plants contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK government is investing in small modular reactors that operate via nuclear fission, as well as in research and development towards commercial fusion reactors. To that end the government entered into a partnership with the US in late 2023 to collaborate on fusion technology, with "a commercial grid-ready fusion reactor by 2040" stated as a goal.<ref> ,

 UKAEA implementing the UK's fusion energy strategy Full text, 
 Open Access Government, 
  
 7 March 2024, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 27 May 2024.

</ref>

At the end of 2023 it was estimated that there were 1.1 billion barrels of oil equivalent of "proven" and "probable" gas reserves and 2.3 billion boe of "proven" and "probable" oil reserves offshore, reducing reliance on imports for energy security and transitioning to renewables.<ref>Template:Cite report</ref> Emissions from UK gas production are roughly four times lower than imported liquefied natural gas (LNG), according to the UK's oil and gas regulator.<ref> ,

 North Sea oil and gas claims fact-checked Full text, 
 BBC, 
  
 22 January 2024, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 1 February 2025.

</ref>

In September 2024 the last coal power station was closed, making coal no longer a power source in the UK.<ref name="2024 Energy" /> The UK currently has no fracking (hydraulic fracturing) for shale gas despite a large supply, due to environmental concerns.<ref> ,

 UK's last fracking wells to be filled with cement despite dwindling gas stocks Full text, 
 City AM, 
  
 29 January 2025, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 1 February 2025.

</ref>

Water supply and sanitation[edit]

Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96 per cent of households are connected to the sewer network.<ref>

Sewage Treatment in the UK(link). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. DEFRA. March 2022.

Accessed 8 April 2023.

</ref> According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007.<ref>

Environment Agency(link). {{{website}}}.

</ref>

In England and Wales, water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, said services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water. In Northern Ireland, they are also provided by a single public entity, Northern Ireland Water.<ref>

About Us(link). {{{website}}}. niwater.com.

Accessed 29 August 2020.

</ref>

Demographics[edit]

Whereas the censuses of England and Wales and of Northern Ireland went ahead as planned in 2021, the census in Scotland was delayed until 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Office for National Statistics has estimated that the total population of the United Kingdom recorded in the census would have been 66,912,637 had it been conducted in all parts of the UK on 21 March 2021.<ref name=Ethnicity2021/> The UK population is the fourth-largest in Europe and the 22nd-largest in the world. In 2012 and 2013 births contributed the most to population growth, while in 2014 and 2015 net international migration contributed more.<ref name="pop2015">

Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015(link). {{{website}}}. Office for National Statistics. 23 June 2016.

</ref> Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased at an average annual rate of 0.7 per cent.<ref name="2011census">

Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2021(link). {{{website}}}. Office for National Statistics. 21 December 2022.

Accessed 16 April 2025.

</ref> The 2011 census also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 to 18 per cent, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16 per cent.<ref name="2011census" /> In 2018 the median age of the UK population was 41.7 years.<ref name="factbook" /> The 2021 census put Scotland's population at 5.48 million, Wales's at 3.1 million and Northern Ireland's at 1.9 million.<ref name="2011census" />

Template:UK population table

England's population in 2021 was 56 million, representing some 84 per cent of the UK total.<ref name="2011census" /> England is one of the most-densely-populated countries in the world, with 434 people per square kilometre in mid-2021,<ref name="2011census" /> with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.<ref> Khan, Urmee,

 England is most crowded country in Europe Full text, 
 The Telegraph, 
  
 16 September 2008, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 5 September 2009.

</ref> London's wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 14.9 million in 2024.<ref>

Major Agglomerations(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 16 October 2023.

</ref>

Population of England by region (Template:UK subdivision statistics year)<ref name="ONS mid-year pop est">Template:UK subdivision statistics citation</ref>
Region	Land area		Population		Density (/km²)
Region	(km²)	(%)	People	(%)	Density (/km²)
North East	8,581	6%	2,683,040	5%	313
North West	14,108	11%	7,516,113	13%	533
Yorkshire and the Humber	15,404	12%	5,541,262	10%	360
East Midlands	15,624	12%	4,934,939	9%	316
West Midlands	12,998	10%	6,021,653	11%	463
East of England	19,116	15%	6,398,497	11%	335
Greater London	1,572	1%	8,866,180	15%	5,640
South East	19,072	15%	9,379,833	16%	492
South West	23,836	18%	5,764,881	10%	242
England	130,310	100%	57,106,398	100%	438

In 2021 the total fertility rate across the UK was 1.53 children born per woman,<ref>

Vital statistics: population and health reference tables(link). Office for National Statistics.

Accessed 6 March 2018.

</ref> which remains considerably below the baby boom peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,<ref> Boseley, Sarah,

 The question: What's behind the baby boom? Full text, 
 The Guardian, 
  
 14 July 2008, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 28 August 2009.

</ref> or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815<ref>

</ref> and below the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2011, 47.3 per cent of births in the UK were to unmarried women.<ref>Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table. Eurostat (26 February 2013). Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> The Office for National Statistics reported in 2015 that amongst the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 per cent identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0 per cent of males and 1.5 per cent of females); 4.5 per cent of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond.<ref>

Sexual identity, UK: 2015 – Experimental Official Statistics on sexual identity in the UK in 2015 by region, sex, age, marital status, ethnicity and NS-SEC(link). {{{website}}}. Office for National Statistics. 5 October 2016.

Accessed 19 January 2017.

</ref> The number of transgender people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.<ref>

Research report 27: Trans research review(link). equalityhumanrights.com.

Accessed 26 November 2021.

</ref> Template:Largest Urban Areas of the United Kingdom

Ethnicity[edit]

Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from ethnic groups that settled there before the 12th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.<ref> ,

 Welsh people could be most ancient in UK, DNA suggests Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 19 June 2012, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 April 2013.

</ref> The UK has a history of non-white immigration with Liverpool having the oldest black population in the country dating from at least the 1730s,<ref>Robert,

 Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. online version, 
  
 Little, Brown Book, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7481-2396-4,; Ray, 
  
 Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918, 
  
 Liverpool:Picton Press, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-873245-07-1,</ref> in addition to having the oldest Chinese community in Europe dating from the 19th century.<ref>

Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community(link). {{{website}}}. Chambré Hardman Trust.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref>

In 2021, 83.1 per cent of the UK population was classified as white, 8.6 per cent as Asian or Asian British, 3.7 per cent as Black or Black British, 2.7 per cent as mixed ethnicity, and 2.0 per cent other.<ref name=Ethnicity2021/> Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. In 2021, 46.2 per cent of London's population was from a non-white ethnic minority,<ref name=Regionaldiversity> ,

 Regional ethnic diversity Full text, 
 , 
 Office for National Statistics, 
 22 December 2022, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 March 2026.

</ref> compared less than 10 per cent in the South West and North East of England, Wales,<ref name=Regionaldiversity/> Scotland<ref> ,

 Ethnicity Full text, 
 , 
 National Records of Scotland, 
 4 February 2025, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 March 2026.

</ref> and Northern Ireland.<ref>

MS-B01: Ethnic group(link). {{{website}}}. Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 30 November 2023.

Accessed 28 March 2026.

</ref>

Language[edit]

The English language is the de facto official and most widely spoken language in the United Kingdom.<ref>

English language – Government, citizens and rights(link). Directgov.

Accessed 23 August 2011.

</ref><ref>Mac Sithigh, Daithí."Official status of languages in the UK and Ireland".Common Law World Review.17 May 2018;47(1)

77–102.doi:10.1177/1473779518773642.Full text.</ref> The UK promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide.<ref>British Council

British Council | the UK's international culture and education organisation(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 5 December 2018.

(last checked 6 February 2023)</ref><ref>

About BBC Learning English(link). BBC.

Accessed 9 February 2023.

</ref>

In the UK, the English language is spoken with distinctive characteristics that collectively form what is known as British English. The variety of dialects and accents is often noted, with nearby regions frequently having highly distinct variations. Received Pronunciation is traditionally associated with educated speakers in southern England.<ref>

British English Pronunciations(link). OED.

Accessed 5 June 2025.

</ref> The main national dialects are Scottish English, Welsh English and Northern Irish English. Distinctive regional varieties include Brummie, Cockney, Geordie, Mancunian, Scouse, West Country, Yorkshire and MLE (Multicultural London English).<ref>

10 British dialects you need to know(link). EF.

Accessed 5 June 2025.

</ref>

Three indigenous Celtic languages are spoken in the UK: Welsh, Irish and Scottish Gaelic. Cornish, which became extinct as a first language in the late-18th century, is being revived and has a small group of second-language speakers.<ref>,

 Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts. online version, 
  
 Routledge, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-41358-9, 
  
  
 Accessed: 4 August 2019.;

Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Strasbourg, 1.II.1995(link). {{{website}}}. Council of Europe.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992(link). {{{website}}}. Council of Europe.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref><ref name="reglang" /> In the 2021 census the Welsh-speaking population of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 (17.8 per cent).<ref>

Welsh language in Wales (Census 2021)(link). gov.wales.

6 December 2022.

Accessed 6 December 2022.

</ref> In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh-speakers live in England.<ref> Wynn Thomas, Peter. Welsh today(link). Voices. BBC. March 2007.

Accessed 5 July 2011.

</ref> In the 2021 census in Northern Ireland 12.4 per cent of people had some Irish language ability and 10.4 per cent had some facility in the Ulster-Scots language.<ref>

Census 2021: Main statistics for Northern Ireland(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 10 February 2024.

</ref>

In 2001, over 92,000 people in Scotland, just under 2 per cent of the population, had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 per cent of those living in the Outer Hebrides.<ref>

Scotland's Census 2001 – Gaelic Report(link). {{{website}}}. General Register Office for Scotland.

Accessed 28 April 2013.

</ref> The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.<ref> ,

 Local UK languages 'taking off' Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 12 February 2009,

</ref> Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, has limited recognition alongside its regional variant, Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.<ref name="reglang" /><ref>

Language Data – Scots(link). {{{website}}}. European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages.

Accessed 2 November 2008.

</ref> As of April 2020 there are around 151,000 users of British Sign Language (BSL), a sign language used by deaf people, in the UK.<ref> Brown, Hannah,

 'People are dying because of this': Calls for UK Gov to follow Scotland with sign language interpreter at Covid-19 briefing Full text, 
 The Scotsman, 
  
 23 April 2020, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 19 December 2021.

</ref>

In 2013, it was estimated that 95 per cent of the UK's population were monolingual English speakers.<ref name="BBC languages">

Languages across Europe: United Kingdom(link). BBC.

Accessed 4 February 2013.

</ref> In 2013, over 5 per cent of the population were estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of immigration.<ref name="BBC languages" /> South Asian languages are the largest group, which includes Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali, Sylheti, Hindi, Pahari-Pothwari, Tamil and Gujarati.<ref>Carl Skutsch (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved 3 December 2020.</ref> In the 2011 census Polish was the second-largest language spoken in England, with 546,000 speakers.<ref> Booth, Robert,

 Polish becomes England's second language Full text, 
 The Guardian, 
  
 30 January 2013, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 4 February 2012.

</ref> In 2019 some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.<ref> ,

 The teenagers who translate for their parents Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 23 April 2019, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 23 April 2019.

</ref>

Religion[edit]

Christianity has dominated religious life in the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.<ref>Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). A Dictionary of British History. Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-19-955037-1.</ref> Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,<ref>Field, Clive D. (November 2009). "British religion in numbers". BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 7 March 2015.</ref> while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of Islam and other faiths.<ref>Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-7546-4389-0.</ref> This has led some commentators to describe the UK as a multi-faith,<ref>Brown, Callum G. (2006). Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-582-47289-1.</ref> secularised,<ref>Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-521-83984-6.</ref> or post-Christian society.<ref>Fergusson, David (2004). Church, State and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-52959-4.</ref>

In the 2021 census of England and Wales, 46.2 per cent of respondents reported that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being Islam (6.5 per cent), Hinduism (1.7 per cent), Sikhism (0.9 per cent), Buddhism (0.5 per cent), Judaism (0.5 per cent), and all other religions (0.6 per cent). Of the respondents, 37.2 per cent stated that they had no religion and a further 6.0 per cent did not answer the optional question.<ref> Roskams, Michael,

 Religion, England and Wales: Census 2021 Full text, 
 , 
 Office for National Statistics, 
 29 November 2022, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 28 March 2026.

</ref> In the census of Northern Ireland, 42.3 per cent of the population was recorded as Catholic, 37.7% as Protestant or other Christian, 1.3 per cent as belonging to other religions, 17.4 per cent as having no religion and 1.6 per cent did not state a religion.<ref>

MS-B19: Religion(link). {{{website}}}. Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 30 November 2023.

</ref> In Scotland's 2022 census, 51.1 per cent of the population stated that they had no religion, 20.4 per cent were recorded as Church of Scotland, 13.3 per cent as Catholic, 5.1 per cent as other Christian, 2.2 per cent as Muslim and 0.6 per cent as Hindu, with 1.2 per cent belonging to other religions and 6.2 per cent not stating a religion.<ref>

Scotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion(link). {{{website}}}. National Records of Scotland. 21 May 2024.

Accessed 28 March 2026.

</ref>

A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed that one Briton in ten attends church weekly.<ref>

United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church(link). News.adventist.org.

4 April 2007.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref> Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses there was a 12 per cent decrease in those who identified as Christian, while the percentage reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing the most to about 5 per cent.<ref> Philby, Charlotte,

 Less religious and more ethnically diverse: Census reveals a picture of Britain today Full text, 
 Independent, 
  
 12 December 2012, 
 London,

</ref>

The Church of England is the established church in England.<ref>

The History of the Church of England(link). The Church of England.

2004.

Accessed 23 November 2008.

</ref> It retains representation in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor.<ref>

Queen and Church of England(link). {{{website}}}. British Monarchy Media Centre.

Accessed 5 June 2010.

</ref> In Scotland the Church of Scotland is the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government" upon his or her accession.<ref>

Queen and the Church(link). {{{website}}}. The British Monarchy (Official Website).

</ref><ref name="reglang" /><ref>

Our structure(link). churchofscotland.org.uk.

22 February 2010.

</ref> The Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, because the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland.<ref>Weller, Paul (2005). Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-567-08487-3.</ref> Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 per cent of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 per cent Catholic, 6 per cent Presbyterian, and 3.4 per cent Methodist, with smaller numbers of other denominations.<ref>Peach, Ceri, "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape", in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. ISBN 978-90-5589-248-8.</ref>

Migration[edit]

Immigration is contributing to a rising population in the United Kingdom,<ref> ,

 Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high Full text, 
 London Evening Standard, 
  
 21 August 2008,

</ref><ref name="bbc-23-05-2024"> ,

 Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing? Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 23 May 2024,

</ref> with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to statistics released in 2015, 27 per cent of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK.<ref>

Births in England and Wales: 2014(link). Office for National Statistics.

15 July 2015.

</ref>

In 2013 approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013 the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common origins of those naturalised in 2024 were Pakistani, Indian, Nigerian, Filipino, Bangladeshi, Italian, Turkish, Romanian and Iranian. The number of grants of settlement, which confer permanent residence in the UK but not citizenship,<ref> Blinder, Scott. Settlement in the UK(link). {{{website}}}. The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. 11 June 2014.

Accessed 1 August 2015.

</ref> was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.<ref name="Blinder2015"> Blinder, Scott. Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends(link). {{{website}}}. The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. 27 March 2015.

Accessed 1 August 2015.

</ref> Long-term net migration (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record of 860,000 in 2023, with immigration at 1.326 million and emigration at 466,000. In comparison, in 2024 net migration was estimated to be 431,000 with immigration at 948,000 and emigration at 517,000.<ref>

Long-term international migration, provisional: year ending December 2024(link). gov.uk.

22 May 2025.

Accessed 22 May 2025.

</ref>

Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland.<ref>Tomas,

 European Immigration Policy: A Comparative Study. online version, 
  
 Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 
  
 Series: Comparative Ethnic and Race Relations, 
  
 ISBN 978-0-521-12437-9,</ref><ref name="richards-2018">Eric, 
  
 The genesis of international mass migration: The British case, 1750-1900. online version, 
 1 edition, 
 Manchester University Press,</ref> Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.<ref name="richards-2018" /> In 2006 at least 5.5 million UK-born people lived abroad,<ref name="BritsAbroad">

Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration(link). {{{website}}}. Institute for Public Policy Research. 11 December 2006.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref><ref> ,

 Brits Abroad: world overview Full text, 
 , 
 BBC, 
  
  
  
 Accessed on: 20 April 2007.

Casciani, Dominic,

 5.5 m Britons 'opt to live abroad' Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 11 December 2006, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 20 April 2007.

</ref> mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.<ref name="BritsAbroad" /><ref> ,

 Brits Abroad: Country-by-country Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 11 December 2006,

</ref>

Education[edit]

Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 per cent of the United Kingdom population has a university or college degree, the highest percentage in Europe and one of the highest in the world.<ref>

The Most Educated Countries in the World(link). Yahoo Finance.

24 September 2012.

Accessed 20 April 2016.

</ref> The UK is home to many universities, including the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge, which often achieve first place on global rankings.<ref>

The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2024(link). {{{website}}}.

25 September 2023.

Accessed 17 April 2024.

</ref><ref>

QS World University Rankings 2024(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 17 April 2024.

</ref>

University education has varied tuition fees in different regions of the UK. England and Wales have a fixed maximum annual fee for all UK citizens, contingent on attaining a certain level of income. Only those who reach a certain salary threshold pay this fee through general taxation.<ref>

Repaying your student loan(link). gov.uk.

Accessed 21 June 2025.

</ref> Northern Ireland and Scotland have a reduced maximum fee or no fee for citizens where it is their home region. Some NHS courses have bursaries which pay the fee and in 2017 it was stated that each doctor gets subsidised by £230,000 during their training.<ref>

Undergraduate Tuition Fess and Student Loans(link). UCAS.

20 October 2014.

Accessed 24 February 2024.

</ref><ref>

More undergraduate medical education places(link). gov.uk.

Accessed 24 February 2024.

</ref>

In 2022 the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 14th in the world in reading, mathematics and science. The average British student scored 494, above the OECD average of 478.<ref>

PISA 2022 UK Results(link). OECD.

4 December 2023.

Accessed 24 February 2024.

</ref>

Health[edit]

NHS Scotland's Queen Elizabeth University Hospital in Glasgow, the largest hospital campus in Europe

The modern system of universal publicly funded healthcare in the United Kingdom has its origins in the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1949 is the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom. The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion".<ref> Gill, Martha,

 To those who claim the NHS has turned into a British religion, I say: keep the faith Full text, 
 The Observer, 
  
 9 July 2023, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 16 July 2023.

</ref><ref>

Is the NHS our new national religion? – Religion Media Centre(link). religionmediacentre.org.uk.

14 April 2020.

Accessed 16 July 2023.

</ref> Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare (NHS England, NHS Scotland, Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland) and NHS Wales), although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth-best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.<ref>,

 The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance. online version, 
  
 Geneva:World Health Organization, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-92-4-156198-3, 
  
  
 Accessed: 5 July 2011.;

World Health Organization. Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries(link). {{{website}}}. New York University.

Accessed 5 July 2011.

</ref>

Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has increased significantly.<ref>Fisher, Peter."The NHS from Thatcher to Blair".NHS Consultants Association.Full text.</ref> The 2018 OECD data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per person.<ref> ,

 Swindells: They aren't 'your' patients Full text, 
 , 
 Health Service Journal, 
 24 September 2019, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 19 November 2019.

</ref> In 2017 the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, near the median for members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.<ref> ,

 How does UK healthcare spending compare with other countries? Full text, 
 , 
 Office of National Statistics, 
 29 August 2019, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 5 October 2019.

</ref>

Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and non-governmental-based, such as the Royal Colleges. Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national governments; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Government. Each National Health Service has different policies and priorities.<ref> ,

 'Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 28 August 2008,

Triggle, Nick,

 NHS now four different systems Full text, 
 BBC News, 
  
 2 January 2008,

</ref>

Culture[edit]

The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the nation's island status, its history, and being a political union of four countries with each preserving distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies, in particular the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland, a common culture known as the Anglosphere.<ref>,

 Constitutionalism and political reconstruction, 
  
 Brill, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-90-04-15174-1, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 92–94,</ref>Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:No globals' not found.  Most of its former colonies are Commonwealth countries, bonded by a shared British inheritance.<ref>

The Commonwealth(link). New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.

Accessed 8 January 2024.

</ref><ref>

Commonwealth of Nations(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament.

Accessed 2026-02-22.

</ref><ref>,

 Anglo-African Commonwealth, 
  
 Pergamon, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-08-012253-3, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 40–41,</ref> A global survey in 2024 ranked the UK third in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings, behind the US and China.<ref>

Most Influential Countries(link). U.S. News & World Report.

Accessed 22 September 2025.

</ref>

Literature and drama[edit]

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British literature includes that associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669 million physical books were sold in the UK, the most ever.<ref>

UK publishing industry reports record-breaking year in 2022(link). {{{website}}}.

17 April 2023.

Accessed 9 May 2024.

</ref> Britain is renowned for children's literature; writers include Daniel Defoe, Rudyard Kipling, Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter, who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include A. A. Milne, Enid Blyton, J. R. R. Tolkien, Roald Dahl, Terry Pratchett and J. K. Rowling, who wrote Harry Potter, the best-selling book series of all time.<ref>

Best-selling Book Series Of All Time(link). {{{website}}}. Wordsrated. 20 July 2023.

Accessed 18 May 2024.

</ref>

The playwright and poet William Shakespeare is generally regarded as the greatest dramatist ever and the national poet of England.<ref>

William Shakespeare (English author)(link). {{{website}}}. Britannica Online encyclopedia.

Accessed 26 February 2006.

William Shakespeare(link). {{{website}}}. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.

Accessed 26 February 2006.

</ref> Theatre of United Kingdom plays an important part in British culture and has had a vibrant tradition of theatre since the Renaissance with roots going back to the Roman occupation. Other important figures in the literature of England are Geoffrey Chaucer, known for The Canterbury Tales, the poet William Wordsworth, and other Romantic poets, also the novelists Charles Dickens, H. G. Wells, George Orwell, Aldous Huxley and Ian Fleming. The 20th-century English crime writer Agatha Christie is the best-selling novelist in history.<ref> ,

 Mystery of Christie's success is solved Full text, 
 The Telegraph, 
  
 19 December 2005, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 14 November 2010.

Template:Cbignore</ref> Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Charlotte Brontë, Emily Brontë, Mary Shelley, Jane Austen, Doris Lessing and Zadie Smith.<ref> Ciabattari, Jane,

 The 25 greatest British novels Full text, 
 BBC Culture, 
  
 December 2015, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 29 December 2021.

</ref>

Scottish literature includes Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes), Sir Walter Scott, J. M. Barrie, Robert Louis Stevenson (whose novel Treasure Island strongly influenced the portrayal of pirates in the arts and popular culture), and the poet Robert Burns, who is considered the national poet of Scotland. More recently Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance, with grimmer works from Ian Rankin and Iain Banks. Edinburgh was UNESCO's first worldwide City of Literature.<ref>

Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref>

Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, most likely composed in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur.<ref>

Early Welsh poetry(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 29 December 2010.

</ref> The Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth.<ref>,

 History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne. online version, 
  
 Holicong, PA:Wildside Press, 
 2003, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-8095-3229-2,</ref> Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl. 1320–1370) is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.<ref>

Dafydd ap Gwilym(link). Academi.org.

Accessed 3 January 2011.

</ref> Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best-known of the Anglo-Welsh poets are Dylan Thomas and R. S. Thomas, the latter nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.<ref>

True birthplace of Wales's literary hero(link). BBC News.

5 December 1999.

Accessed 28 April 2012.

</ref><ref>

Kate Roberts: Biography(link). BBC Wales.

Accessed 19 February 2017.

</ref>

Northern Ireland's most popular writer is C. S. Lewis, who was born in Belfast and wrote The Chronicles of Narnia.<ref>

The Chronicles of Narnia Book Series Statistics(link). {{{website}}}. Wordsrated. 19 July 2023.

Accessed 18 May 2024.

</ref> Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include Oscar Wilde,<ref>Anne,

 A Preface to Oscar Wilde, 
  
 Routledge, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-317-89231-1, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 231–232,;

</ref> Bram Stoker (who wrote Dracula)<ref>Joyce,

 British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–). online version, 
  
 Gale Group, 
 2001, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7876-3729-3,</ref> and George Bernard Shaw.<ref>Michael, 
  
 Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power. online version, 
  
 Chatto & Windus, 
 1989, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7011-3350-4,;

G B Shaw(link). Discovering Literature: 20th century. British Library.

Accessed 10 December 2019.

</ref> There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including Joseph Conrad,<ref>Tim,

 Joseph Conrad. online version, 
  
 Routledge, 
 2006, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-26851-6,</ref> T. S. Eliot,<ref>John Xiros, 
  
 The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot. online version, 
  
 Cambridge University Press, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-139-45790-3,</ref> Kazuo Ishiguro,<ref>Wai-chew, 
  
 Kazuo Ishiguro. online version, 
  
 Routledge, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-1-135-19867-1,</ref> Sir Salman Rushdie<ref>

Salman Rushdie(link). Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press.

Accessed 10 December 2019.

</ref> and Ezra Pound.<ref> Campbell, James,

 Home from home Full text, 
 The Guardian, 
  
 17 May 2008, 
  
  
 Accessed on: 10 December 2019.

Ira,

 Ezra Pound: A Literary Life. online version, 
  
 Palgrave Macmillan, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-230-37881-0,</ref>

Philosophy[edit]

The United Kingdom is famous for "British Empiricism", a branch of the philosophy that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the 'Scottish School of Common Sense'.<ref>,

 A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins. online version, 
  
 Bristol:Thoemmes Press, 
 2000, 
  
  
  
  
  
 Accessed: 17 December 2010.</ref> The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke, George Berkeley^{[lower-alpha 11]}

and David Hume; while Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of utilitarianism, a moral philosophy first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism.<ref>, 
  
 Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook. online version, 
  
 Cambridge:Lutterworth Press, 
 1999, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-7188-2978-0,; , 
  
 Utilitarianism. online version, 
  
 London:Routledge, 
 1995, 
  
  
 ISBN 978-0-415-12197-2,</ref>

Media[edit]

The BBC, founded in 1922, is the United Kingdom's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.<ref name="MediaNewsline">

BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand(link). {{{website}}}. Media Newsline.

Accessed 23 September 2010.

</ref><ref name="ProspectMag">

Digital license(link). {{{website}}}. Prospect.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

</ref><ref name="AboutBBC"> ,

 About the BBC – What is the BBC Full text, 
 BBC Online, 
  
  
  
  
 Accessed on: 9 March 2015.

</ref> It operates television and radio stations across the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.<ref>"BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand".Media Newsline.13 August 2009;Full text.;

TV Licence Fee: facts & figures(link). {{{website}}}. BBC Press Office. April 2010.

</ref> The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC, and the world's largest.<ref>

Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 16 February 2011.

</ref> It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.<ref>

News in your language – BBC News(link). BBC.

BBC World Service(link). Facebook.com.

</ref>

Other major players in the UK media include ITV, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network,<ref>

Publications & Policies: The History of ITV(link). ITV.com.

</ref> and Sky.<ref>"Direct Broadcast Satellite Television".News Corporation.Full text.</ref> Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the Daily Mail, The Guardian, The Telegraph, The Times, and the Financial Times.<ref> ,

 ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008 Full text, 
 The Guardian, 
  
 10 October 2008, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 17 October 2008.

</ref> Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include The Spectator, The Economist, New Statesman and Radio Times.

London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although MediaCityUK in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively.<ref>William, D. (2010). UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. ISBN 978-9987-16-021-1, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145.</ref> The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs 167,000 people.<ref>

Publishing(link). {{{website}}}. Department of Culture, Media and Sport.

</ref> In 2015 the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, with much of this exported to other Anglophone countries.<ref>

Annual Report 2015–2016(link). internationalpublishers.org. International Publishers Association. 2016.

Accessed 14 January 2021.

</ref>

In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.<ref>"Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users".Internet World Stats.Full text.</ref> The British video game industry is the largest in Europe, and since 2022 the UK has the largest video game market in Europe by sales, surpassing Germany.<ref> Dring, Christopher. European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022(link). GamesIndustry.biz.

12 January 2023.

Accessed 30 September 2023.

</ref> It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after Japan and the United States.<ref>

About UK Video Games Industry(link). TIGA.

Accessed 6 June 2023.

</ref>

Visual art[edit]

Major British artists include the Romantic artists William Blake, John Constable, Samuel Palmer, and J. M. W. Turner; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L. S. Lowry; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris; the figurative painter Francis Bacon; the Pop artists Peter Blake, Richard Hamilton and David Hockney; the pioneers of conceptual art movement Art & Language;<ref> Tate,

 Art & Language – Art Term | Tate Full text, 
 Tate, 
  
  
  
  
 Accessed on: 8 September 2018.

</ref> the collaborative duo Gilbert and George; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin; and the sculptors Antony Gormley, Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore. During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "Young British Artists": Damien Hirst, Chris Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor-Wood and the Chapman Brothers are amongst the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement.

The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Glasgow School of Art; the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain, and Tate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).<ref> Bayley, Stephen,

 The startling success of Tate Modern Full text, 
 The Times, 
  
 24 April 2010, 
 London, 
  
 Accessed on: 19 January 2011.
(subscription required)</ref>

Music[edit]

Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the folk music of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. English folk features melodic ballads with strong lyrics and music for country dancing often using accordion and fiddles.<ref>

Songs of England(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 15 September 2025.

</ref> Scottish folk features bagpipes and fiddles playing traditional dance tunes with bouncy tempos.<ref>

The influence of traditional Scottish Music(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 15 September 2025.

</ref> Welsh folk has harps and vocal harmonies often sung in Welsh.<ref>

Celtic connections: the story of folk music in Wales(link). {{{website}}}.

17 February 2020.

Accessed 15 September 2025.

</ref> Northern Irish folk blends fiddles with flutes merging Scottish and Irish influences.<ref>

Why you should experience traditional music in Ireland(link). {{{website}}}.

Accessed 15 September 2025.

</ref>

Historically, there has been Renaissance music from the Tudor period, with masses, madrigals and lute music by Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons and John Dowland. After the Stuart Restoration, an English tradition of dramatic masques, anthems and airs became established, led by Henry Purcell, followed by Thomas Arne and others. George Frideric Handel composed the anthem Zadok the Priest for the coronation of George II; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous Messiah, were written in English.<ref>

British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel(link). {{{website}}}. UK Parliament. 20 July 2009.

Accessed 9 March 2015.

Andrews, John,

 Handel all'inglese Full text, 
 Playbill, 
  
 14 April 2006, 
 New York, 
  
 Accessed on: 11 September 2009.

</ref>

In the second half of the 19th century, Arthur Sullivan and his librettist W. S. Gilbert wrote their popular Savoy operas, and Edward Elgar composed a wide range of music. Increasingly, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its folk music, notably Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten, a pioneer of modern British opera. Amongst the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: Peter Maxwell Davies (Orkney), Harrison Birtwistle (mythological), and John Tavener (religious).<ref>Template:Cite Grove; Template:Cite Grove; Template:Cite Grove; Template:Cite Grove; Template:Cite Grove;

British 20th century composers(link). BBC.

Accessed 21 April 2022.

</ref> Recent classical singers include Alfie Boe, Bryn Terfel, Katherine Jenkins, Michael Ball, Roderick Williams, Russell Watson and Sarah Brightman, while Nicola Benedetti and Nigel Kennedy are renowned for their violin ability.<ref>

30 of the greatest violinists on record(link). Gramophone.

21 June 2022.

Accessed 4 March 2024.

Template:Cite web;Template:Cite web;Template:Cite web;Template:Cite web;Template:Cite web</ref>

According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians the term "pop music" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe rock and roll's fusion with the "new youth music".<ref>R. Middleton, et al., "Pop", Grove music online, retrieved 14 March 2010. Template:Subscription required Template:Webarchive</ref> The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that artists such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s.<ref>"Pop", The Oxford Dictionary of Music, retrieved 9 March 2010.Template:Subscription required Template:Webarchive</ref> Birmingham became known as the birthplace of heavy metal, with the band Black Sabbath starting there in the 1960s.<ref>Template:Cite news Template:Cite web</ref> In the following years, Britain took part in the development of rock music, with British acts pioneering hard rock,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> raga rock, heavy metal,<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> space rock, glam rock,<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref> Gothic rock,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> psychedelic rock<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and punk rock.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref> British acts also developed neo soul and created dubstep.<ref>Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). British Soul. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; AllMusic – Dubstep Template:Webarchive "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; Template:Cite news</ref> The UK has produced some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including Stormzy, Kano, Yxng Bane, Ramz, Little Simz and Skepta.<ref>Template:Cite magazine</ref>

The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the biggest-selling band, in addition to being widely regarded as the most influential band in the history of popular music.<ref name="Beatles sales">Template:Cite web</ref><ref name="McCartney">Template:Cite magazine</ref><ref name="Guinness">Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref><ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Other prominent British contributors to popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees and Elton John, all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more.<ref>Template:Cite press release; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news Template:Cbignore; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The Brit Awards are the BPI's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include the Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart, the Police and Fleetwood Mac (who are a British-American band).<ref>"Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012.</ref> More recent UK music acts that have had international success include George Michael, Oasis, Spice Girls, Radiohead, Coldplay, Arctic Monkeys, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse, Susan Boyle, Adele, Ed Sheeran, Lewis Capaldi, One Direction, Harry Styles and Dua Lipa.<ref>Template:Cite web; Template:Cite magazine; Template:Cite news; Template:Cite web; Template:Cite web</ref> As of 2024 the UK is the world's third-largest music market behind the US and Japan,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and in 2021 was the second-largest exporter of music behind the US.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Many British cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Glasgow's contribution was recognised in 2008 when it was named a City of Music by UNESCO.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as acid house, and from the mid-1990s, Britpop. London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of electronic music sub-genres such as drum and bass and trip hop.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

UK dance music traces its roots back to the black British Sound System Culture and the New Age Traveller movement of the 60s and 70s,<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> it also has influences from the Chicago House and Detroit Techno scenes. In the late 80's, dance music exploded with Rave culture mainly Acid House tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's Sesame's Treet and the Prodigy's Charly)<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> and the Balearic sound brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as UK Garage, Speed Garage, Drum and bass, Jungle, Trance, and Dubstep. Influential UK dance acts past and present include 808 State, Orbital, the Prodigy, Underworld, Roni Size, Leftfield, Massive Attack, Groove Armada, Fatboy Slim, Faithless, Basement Jaxx, Chemical Brothers, Sub Focus, Chase & Status, Disclosure, Calvin Harris, and Fred Again.<ref>Template:Cite web;Template:Cite web</ref> Other influential UK DJs include Judge Jules, Pete Tong, Carl Cox, Paul Oakenfold, John Digweed and Sasha.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

Cinema[edit]

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The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock, whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time,<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> and David Lean, who directed Lawrence of Arabia, are amongst the most critically acclaimed directors ever.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Recent popular directors include Christopher Nolan, Sam Mendes, Steve McQueen, Richard Curtis, Danny Boyle, Tony Scott and Ridley Scott.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3 billion globally, accounting for 28.7 per cent of global box office revenue.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> UK box-office takings totalled £1.25 billion in 2019, with around 176 million admissions.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stood at 6.9 million sq ft, with 1 million sq ft added in the past year with more in development.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The annual BAFTA Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Cuisine[edit]

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British cuisine developed from influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> The traditional Sunday roast is one example, featuring a roast joint (usually of beef), lamb, chicken, or pork, often free range (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. Other traditional meals include meat pies and stews. A poll by YouGov in 2019 rated classic British food, with more than 80 per cent liking the Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, fish and chips, crumpets and the full English breakfast.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

The UK is home to a large selection of fine dining. The nation hosts multiple restaurant guides such as The Good Food Guide and Harden's. In 2025 there were 197 restaurants with a Michelin Star; ten of which have received a three-star rating.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of British desserts. Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> A poll from July 2024 revealed that 3 per cent of the UK population follow a vegan diet, 6 per cent are vegetarian, and 13 per cent identify as flexitarian (following a mainly vegetarian diet).<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> The British Empire facilitated knowledge of Indian cuisine with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing hybrid dishes, such as chicken tikka masala.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite news</ref> The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from other European countries, the Caribbean and Asia.

The UK has many gastropubs and is the birthplace of many alcoholic drinks including several beer styles such as pale ale, India pale ale, bitter, brown ale, porter, and stout. The number of craft beers and microbreweries has expanded rapidly in the last two decades.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Other popular alcoholic drinks produced in the UK include Scotch whisky, English wine, gin, perry and cider.

Sport[edit]

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Association football, tennis, table tennis, badminton, rugby union, rugby league, rugby sevens, golf, boxing, netball, water polo, field hockey, billiards, darts, rowing, rounders and cricket originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in the Victorian era.Template:Efn

A poll in 2003 found that football is the most popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll">Template:Cite web</ref> England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and the Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.<ref>Template:Cite news; Template:Cite web</ref> Each of the Home Nations (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and league system, and each is individually a governing member of the International Football Association Board alongside FIFA. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The first international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

In 2003 rugby union was ranked the second-most-popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll" /> The sport was created in Rugby School, Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref><ref>Template:Cite book</ref> England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship, the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sports governing bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> Every four years the Home Nations make a combined team known as the British and Irish Lions which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

The United Kingdom hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1908, 1948 and 2012, with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games, the seventh time a country of the United Kingdom hosted the Commonwealth Games (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).<ref>Template:Cite news</ref>

Symbols[edit]

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The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag, which is also referred to as the Union Jack.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the flag of England, representing Saint George, on the flag of Scotland, representing Saint Andrew, and was updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick's Flag.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales was discussed in 2007.<ref>Template:Cite news</ref> The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the King", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman.

Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref> Beside The Lion and the Unicorn and the dragon of heraldry, the bulldog is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag.<ref>Template:Cite book</ref> A rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, John Bull.<ref>Template:Cite web</ref>

England, Wales and Scotland each have their own national symbols, including their national flags. Northern Ireland also has symbols, many of which are shared with the Republic of Ireland.

Notes[edit]

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References[edit]

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External links[edit]

United Kingdom from BBC News
United Kingdom. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
United Kingdom from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 6 April 2009)
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Key Development Forecasts for the United Kingdom from International Futures

Government[edit]

Travel[edit]

Official tourist guide to Britain

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United Kingdom

Etymology and terminology[edit]

History[edit]

Prior to the Treaty of Union[edit]

Union of England and Scotland[edit]

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland[edit]

World wars and partition of Ireland[edit]

Post-war 20th century[edit]

21st century[edit]

Geography[edit]

Climate[edit]

Topography[edit]

Government and politics[edit]

Elections[edit]

Administrative divisions[edit]

Devolution[edit]

England[edit]

Scotland[edit]

Wales[edit]

Northern Ireland[edit]

Foreign relations[edit]

Military[edit]

Law and criminal justice[edit]

Economy[edit]

Industries and services[edit]

Science and technology[edit]

Transport[edit]

Energy[edit]

Water supply and sanitation[edit]

Demographics[edit]

Ethnicity[edit]

Language[edit]

Religion[edit]

Migration[edit]

Education[edit]

Health[edit]

Culture[edit]

Literature and drama[edit]

Philosophy[edit]

Media[edit]

Visual art[edit]

Music[edit]

Cinema[edit]

Cuisine[edit]

Sport[edit]

Symbols[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

Government[edit]

Travel[edit]