Mammoplasia

Mammoplasia
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Mammoplasia is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of human breasts.<ref name="Nathanson1946">,

 Present Concepts of Benign Breast Disease, 
 New England Journal of Medicine, 
 1946,
 Vol. 235(Issue: 15),
 pp. 548–553,
 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM194610102351505,</ref> Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle.<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010">, 
  
 Management of Breast Diseases. online version, 
  
 Springer Science & Business Media, 
  
  
  
 ISBN 978-3-540-69743-5, 
  
  
  
 Pages: 21–,</ref><ref name="ArunNarendra2012">, 
  
 Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology--3. online version, 
  
 Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 
  
  
  
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 Pages: 393–394,</ref><ref name="PescovitzEugster2004">, 
  
 Pediatric Endocrinology: Mechanisms, Manifestations, and Management. online version, 
  
 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 
 2004, 
  
  
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 Pages: 349–,</ref> When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological.<ref name="PescovitzEugster2004" /> When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological.<ref name="CoranCaldamone2012">, 
  
 Pediatric Surgery. online version, 
  
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 David J. Dabbs, 
  
 Breast Pathology. online version, 
  
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 2012, 
  
  
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 Pages: 99–,</ref> Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is temporary enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk).<ref name="TALWARSRIVASTAVA2002">, 
  
 TEXTBOOK OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND HUMAN BIOLOGY. online version, 
  
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 Pages: 959–,</ref> Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia.<ref name="Zink1988">{{{last}}}, 
 Christoph Zink, 
  
 Dictionary of Obstetrics and Gynecology. online version, 
  
 Walter de Gruyter, 
  
  
  
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During the luteal phase (latter half) of the menstrual cycle, due to increased mammary blood flow and/or premenstrual fluid retention caused by high circulating concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone, the breasts temporarily increase in size, and this is experienced by women as fullness, heaviness, swollenness, and a tingling sensation.<ref name="LawrenceLawrence2015">,

 Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. online version, 
  
 Elsevier Health Sciences, 
  
  
  
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 Changes in breast volume during normal menstrual cycle and after oral contraceptives, 
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 1975,
 Vol. 4(Issue: 5995),
 pp. 494–6,
 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.4.5995.494,
 PMID: 1192144,
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Mammoplasia can be an effect or side effect of various drugs, including estrogens,<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010" /><ref name="Lewis1998">{{{last}}},

 Robert Alan Lewis, 
  
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 Jeffrey K. Aronson, 
  
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 Harvey B. Simon, 
  
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 Sat Dharam Kaur, 
  
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 2011,
 Vol. 55(Issue: 8),
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 DOI: 10.1590/S0004-27302011000800009,</ref> and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone), metoclopramide, and domperidone<ref name="pmid18473017">, 
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 PMID: 18473017,
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 Antidepressant-Selective Gynecomastia, 
 Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 
 2013,
 Vol. 47(Issue: 1),
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 DOI: 10.1345/aph.1R491,
 PMID: 23324513,</ref> The risk appears to be less with serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) like venlafaxine.<ref name="pmid9479619" /> The "atypical" antidepressants mirtazapine and bupropion do not increase prolactin levels (bupropion may actually decrease prolactin levels), and hence there may be no risk with these agents.<ref name="pmid18473017" /> Other drugs that have been associated with mammoplasia include D-penicillamine, bucillamine, neothetazone, ciclosporin, indinavir, marijuana, and cimetidine.<ref name="Dabbs2012"/><ref name="DanceyKhan2008">, 
 Gigantomastia – a classification and review of the literature, 
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A 1997 study found an association between the SSRIs and mammoplasia in 23 (39%) of its 59 female participants.<ref name="pmid9479619">,

 Breast enlargement during chronic antidepressant therapy, 
 J Affect Disord, 
 1997,
 Vol. 46(Issue: 2),
 pp. 151–6,
 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0327(97)00086-4,
 PMID: 9479619,</ref> Studies have also found associations between SSRIs and galactorrhea.<ref name="LiebermanTasman2006"/><ref name="pmid20527996">, 
 Antidepressant-induced hyperprolactinaemia: incidence, mechanisms and management, 
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 2010,
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 A new logical insight and putative mechanism behind fluoxetine-induced amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea in a case series, 
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 Benjamin Sadock, 
  
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 Pages: 312–,</ref> These side effects seem to be due to hyperprolactinemia (elevated prolactin levels) induced by these drugs, an effect that appears to be caused by serotonin-mediated inhibition of tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons that inhibit prolactin secretion.<ref name="pmid9479619" /><ref name="pmid20527996" /><ref name="MondalSaha2013" /> It is noteworthy that the mammoplasia these drugs can cause has been found to be highly correlated with concomitant weight gain (in the 1997 study, 83% of those who experienced weight gain also experienced mammoplasia, while only 30% of those who did not experience weight gain experienced mammoplasia).<ref name="pmid9479619" /> The mammoplasia associated with SSRIs is reported to be reversible with drug discontinuation.<ref name="Sadock2013" /> SSRIs have notably been associated with a modestly increased risk of breast cancer.<ref name="pmid25934397">, 
 Anti-depressant therapy and cancer risk: A nested case-control study, 
 Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 
 2015,
 Vol. 25(Issue: 8),
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 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.010,
 PMID: 25934397,</ref> This is in accordance with higher prolactin levels being associated with increased breast cancer risk.<ref name="HankinsonWillett1999">, 
 Plasma Prolactin Levels and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women, 
 JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 
 1999,
 Vol. 91(Issue: 7),
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 DOI: 10.1093/jnci/91.7.629,
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 Plasma Prolactin Concentrations and Risk of Postmenopausal Breast Cancer, 
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In puberty induction in hypogonadal girls and in feminizing hormone therapy in transgender women, as well as hormonal breast enhancement in women with breast hypoplasia or small breasts, mammoplasia is a desired effect.<ref name="pmid18174716">,

 Introduction and management of puberty in girls, 
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See also

• Breast atrophy
• Micromastia
• Galactogogue