'''''Vibrio vulnificus''''' is a species of [[Gram-negative]], motile, curved rod-shaped (bacillus), pathogenic [[Bacterium|bacteria]] of the genus ''[[Vibrio]]''. Present in marine environments such as [[Estuary|estuaries]], brackish ponds, or coastal areas, ''V. vulnificus'' is related to ''[[Vibrio cholerae|''V. cholerae'']]'', the causative agent of [[cholera]].<ref name=Doyle_2001_species>{{cite book | vauthors = Oliver JD, Kaper J | title = Vibrio species. pp. 263-300 In: Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers. (Doyle MP et al., editors) | edition = 2nd | publisher = ASM Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-55581-117-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/foodmicrobiology0000unse_u0k4 }}</ref><ref name=Oliver_2005_Wound>{{cite journal | author=Oliver JD | title=Wound infections caused by ''Vibrio vulnificus'' and other marine bacteria | journal=Epidemiol Infect | year=2005 | pages=383–91 | volume=133 | issue=3 | pmid=15962544 | doi=10.1017/S0950268805003894 | pmc=2870261}}</ref>
[[File:Vibrio_vulnificus_01.png|thumb|right|Vibrio vulnificus under a microscope]]
Infection with ''V. vulnificus'' leads to rapidly expanding [[cellulitis]] or [[sepsis]].<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |author=James, William D. |title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology |publisher=Saunders Elsevier |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=978-0-7216-2921-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate= |last2=Berger |first2=Timothy G. }}</ref>{{rp|279}} It was first isolated as a source of disease in 1976.<ref name="pmid1262454"/>
'''Vibrio vulnificus''' is a species of [[Gram-negative bacteria]] that is part of the [[Vibrionaceae]] family. It is a [[halophilic]] (salt-loving) bacterium that is commonly found in [[marine environments]] such as estuaries, brackish ponds, or coastal areas. V. vulnificus is known for causing severe illness in humans, particularly through the consumption of contaminated [[seafood]] or exposure of open wounds to contaminated water.
==Signs and symptoms==
== Characteristics ==
''V. vulnificus'' is an extremely virulent bacterium that can cause three types of infections:
*Acute [[gastroenteritis]] from eating raw or undercooked shellfish: ''V. vulnificus'' causes an infection often incurred after eating [[seafood]], especially raw or undercooked oysters. It does not alter the appearance, taste, or odor of oysters.<ref name=CDCFAQOysters>{{cite web|title=''Vibrio'' Species Causing Vibriosis|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/index.html|publisher=Centers for Disease Control|accessdate=June 5, 2017}}</ref> Symptoms include vomiting, [[diarrhea]], and abdominal pain.
Vibrio vulnificus is a [[curved rod-shaped]] bacterium that is [[motile]] due to a single polar [[flagellum]]. It is a [[facultative anaerobe]], meaning it can survive in both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments. The bacterium thrives in warm temperatures, typically found in waters with temperatures above 20°C (68°F).
*[[Necrotizing]] wound infections can occur in injured skin exposed to contaminated marine water. ''V. vulnificus'' bacteria can enter the body through open [[wound]]s when swimming or wading in infected waters,<ref name=Oliver_2005_Wound /> or by puncture wounds from the spines of fishes such as [[stingray]]s. People may develop a [[blister]]ing [[dermatitis]] sometimes mistaken for [[pemphigus]] or [[pemphigoid]].
*Invasive [[sepsis]] can occur after eating raw or undercooked shellfish, especially oysters. ''V. vulnificus'' is 80 times more likely to spread into the bloodstream in people with compromised [[immune system]]s, especially those with chronic liver disease. When this happens, severe symptoms including blistering skin lesions and [[septic shock]] can sometimes lead to death.<ref>{{cite web | title=Vibrio vulnificus | work=NCBI Genome Project | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=genomeprj&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=Overview&list_uids=12341 | accessdate=2005-09-01 }}</ref><ref name=CDCFAQType>{{cite web|title=''Vibrio'' Species Causing Vibriosis - Questions and Answers|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/faq.html|publisher=Centers for Disease Control|accessdate=June 5, 2017}}</ref> This severe infection may occur regardless of whether the infection began from contaminated food or an open wound.<ref name=CDCFAQType />
Among healthy people, ingestion of ''V. vulnificus'' can cause vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In someone with a compromised immune system, particularly those with chronic [[liver disease]], it can infect the bloodstream, causing a severe and life-threatening illness characterized by fever and chills, decreased blood pressure (septic shock), and blistering skin lesions. While men have been shown to be more at risk from this infection than women, co-morbidities such as alcoholic cirrhosis and diseases affecting the endocrine system (diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, etc.) put a person far more at risk to develop infection from ''V. vulnificus.'' <ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/vibrio-vulnificus-infections|title=UpToDate|website=www.uptodate.com|access-date=2019-06-21}}</ref>
== Pathogenicity ==
==Pathogenesis==
V. vulnificus is highly pathogenic and can cause [[gastroenteritis]], [[wound infections]], and [[septicemia]]. The bacterium is particularly dangerous for individuals with [[liver disease]], [[immunocompromised]] conditions, or [[iron overload disorders]].
'''Capsule''': V. ''vulnificus'' has a capsule, made of polysaccharides, and is thought to protect against [[phagocytosis]].<ref name=":0" /> The capsule also aids the bacteria in escaping [[Opsonin|opsonization.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wright|first=A. C.|last2=Simpson|first2=L. M.|last3=Oliver|first3=J. D.|last4=Morris|first4=J. G.|date=June 1990|title=Phenotypic evaluation of acapsular transposon mutants of Vibrio vulnificus|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1769–1773|issn=0019-9567|pmc=258721|pmid=2160432}}</ref> Different strains of the bacteria are capable of shifting through the unencapsulated and encapsulated forms. Mouse models have shown that the unencapsulated forms are avirulent. These same strains however, are shown to have a higher predisposition to shift to the virulent encapsulated form when taken up by oysters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Srivastava|first=Milan|last2=Tucker|first2=Matthew S.|last3=Gulig|first3=Paul A.|last4=Wright|first4=Anita C.|date=August 2009|title=Phase variation, capsular polysaccharide, pilus and flagella contribute to uptake of Vibrio vulnificus by the Eastern oyster ( Crassostrea virginica )|journal=Environmental Microbiology|volume=11|issue=8|pages=1934–1944|doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01916.x}}</ref>
'''Endotoxin''': Like all gram negative bacteria, V. ''vulnificus'' has LPS (lipopolysaccharide as the major component of its outer membrane). However, the LPS the bacteria produces isn't as efficient at triggering the immune system's release of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha and other cytokines that produce shock syndromes. The capsular proteins the bacteria express however, are capable of producing an immune response contributing to shock syndrome.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Powell|first=J. L.|last2=Wright|first2=A. C.|last3=Wasserman|first3=S. S.|last4=Hone|first4=D. M.|last5=Morris|first5=J. G.|date=September 1997|title=Release of tumor necrosis factor alpha in response to Vibrio vulnificus capsular polysaccharide in<!--not a mistake--> in vivo and in vitro models|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=65|issue=9|pages=3713–3718|issn=0019-9567|pmc=175529|pmid=9284142}}</ref>
=== Gastroenteritis ===
'''Exotoxin''': ''V. vulnificus'' produces a number of extracellular toxins such as metalloprotease VvpE, cytolysin/hemolysin VvhA, and the multifunctional autoprocessing repeats-in-toxins (MARTX) toxin. While the VvhA and MARTX toxin are factors in the bacteria's virulence, in vivo studies in mice suggest that the MARTX toxin is more responsible for bacterial dissemination from the intestine to produce sepsis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baker-Austin|first=Craig|last2=Oliver|first2=James D.|date=February 2018|title=Vibrio vulnificus: new insights into a deadly opportunistic pathogen|journal=Environmental Microbiology|volume=20|issue=2|pages=423–430|doi=10.1111/1462-2920.13955|issn=1462-2920|pmid=29027375|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gavin|first=Hannah E.|last2=Satchell|first2=Karla J. F.|date=2019-02-23|title=RRSP and RID Effector Domains Dominate the Virulence Impact of Vibrio vulnificus MARTX Toxin|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=219|issue=6|pages=889–897|doi=10.1093/infdis/jiy590|issn=1537-6613|pmc=6386806|pmid=30289477}}</ref>
Consumption of raw or undercooked [[shellfish]], especially [[oysters]], can lead to gastroenteritis caused by V. vulnificus. Symptoms include [[diarrhea]], [[vomiting]], and [[abdominal pain]].
'''Iron''': Growth of V. ''vulnificus'' is dependent on the amount of iron that is accessible to the bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brennt|first=C. E.|last2=Wright|first2=A. C.|last3=Dutta|first3=S. K.|last4=Morris|first4=J. G.|date=November 1991|title=Growth of Vibrio vulnificus in serum from alcoholics: association with high transferrin iron saturation|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=164|issue=5|pages=1030–1032|doi=10.1093/infdis/164.5.1030|issn=0022-1899|pmid=1940460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Choon-Mee|last2=Park|first2=Ra-Young|last3=Choi|first3=Mi-Hwa|last4=Sun|first4=Hui-Yu|last5=Shin|first5=Sung-Heui|date=2007-01-01|title=Ferrophilic characteristics of Vibrio vulnificus and potential usefulness of iron chelation therapy|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=195|issue=1|pages=90–98|doi=10.1086/509822|issn=0022-1899|pmid=17152012|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Choon-Mee|last2=Park|first2=Yong-Jin|last3=Shin|first3=Sung-Heui|date=2007-11-15|title=A widespread deferoxamine-mediated iron-uptake system in Vibrio vulnificus|journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=196|issue=10|pages=1537–1545|doi=10.1086/523108|issn=0022-1899|pmid=18008234|doi-access=free}}</ref> The observed association of the infection with liver disease (associated with increased serum iron) might be due to the capability of more virulent strains to capture iron bound to [[transferrin]].<ref name=":0">Oxford handbook of Infect Dis and Microbiol, 2009</ref>
=== Wound Infections ===
== Strains ==
Exposure of open wounds to contaminated seawater can result in wound infections. These infections can rapidly progress to [[necrotizing fasciitis]], a severe condition that requires immediate medical attention.
The most harmful strains of ''V. vulnificus'' documented have been observed in three different forms. The first is in an anti-phagocytic polysaccharide capsule that protects the bacteria. By encapsulating the bacteria, phagocytosis and opsonization are not able to occur, thus allowing the bacteria to continue throughout the organism it is in. The second way that ''V. vulnificus'' has been most harmful is with some of the toxins that it creates. These toxins are not part of the infection that ''V. vulnificus'' causes but instead they are part of a secondary infection in the GI tract that most certainly will lead to systemic infection. Lastly, ''V. vulnificus'' has been seen to cause more harm in patients who have higher levels of iron.<ref name=":1" />
==Treatment==
=== Septicemia ===
''V. vulnificus'' wound infections have a mortality rate around 25%. In people in whom the infection worsens into sepsis, typically following ingestion, the mortality rate rises to 50%. The majority of these people die within the first 48 hours of infection. The optimal treatment is not known, but in one retrospective study of 93 people in Taiwan, use of a third-generation [[cephalosporin]] and a [[tetracycline]] (e.g., [[ceftriaxone]] and [[doxycycline]], respectively) was associated with an improved outcome.<ref name="Liu2006">{{cite journal | year=2006 | volume=166 | issue=19 | pages=2117–23 | title=Prognostic factors and antibiotics in ''Vibrio vulnificus'' septicemia | author=Liu JW | pmid=17060542 | doi=10.1001/archinte.166.19.2117 | journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |name-list-format=vanc| author2=Lee IK | author3=Tang HJ | display-authors=3 | last4=Ko | first4=W.-C. | last5=Lee | first5=H.-C. | last6=Liu | first6=Y.-C. | last7=Hsueh | first7=P.-R. | last8=Chuang | first8=Y.-C. | doi-access=free }}</ref> Prospective clinical trials are needed to confirm this finding, but ''[[in vitro]]'' data support the supposition that this combination is [[synergistic#Drug synergy|synergistic]] against ''V. vulnificus''. Likewise, the [[American Medical Association]] and the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) recommend treating the person with a [[Quinolone antibiotic|quinolone]] or [[intravenous]] doxycycline with [[ceftazidime]]. The first successful documented treatment of [[fulminant]] ''V. vulnificus'' [[sepsis]] was in 1995. Treatment was ceftazidime and intravenous (IV) [[ciprofloxacin]] and IV doxycycline, which proved successful. Prevention of secondary infections from [[respiratory failure]] and [[acute renal failure]] is crucial. Key to the diagnosis and treatment were the early recognition of [[blister|bullae]] in an immunocompromised person with [[liver cirrhosis]] and oyster ingestion within the previous 48 hours, and the request by the physician for [[statim#statim|STAT]] [[Gram staining]] and [[blood culture]]s for ''V. vulnificus''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.issc.org/client_resources/Education/VvFactSheet.pdf | title=Vibrio vulnificus fact sheet | work=issc.org | accessdate=August 1, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721210226/http://www.issc.org/client_resources/Education/VvFactSheet.pdf|archivedate=21 July 2016}}</ref>
''V. vulnificus'' often causes large, disfiguring [[ulcer]]s that require extensive [[debridement]] or even amputation.
In susceptible individuals, V. vulnificus can enter the bloodstream, leading to septicemia. This condition is characterized by [[fever]], [[chills]], [[hypotension]], and [[blistering skin lesions]]. It has a high mortality rate if not treated promptly.
==Prognosis==
== Prevention and Treatment ==
''V. vulnificus'' may not be a commonly known bacteria, but it is, however, the most common cause of death due to seafood in the United States. Infection and mortality due to ''V. vulnificus'' causes over 95% of deaths in the United States that are known to have occurred due to ingested seafood. Surprisingly enough, while ''V. vulnificus'' claims 95% of seafood related deaths, if treatment with tetracycline or other cephalosporin antibiotics is initiated at the onset of symptoms and is managed appropriately, patients will experience no long term effects, provided they continue to take the full course of antibiotics -- typically about two weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-07-01|title=Vibrio Vulnificus Infection: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1055523-overview}}</ref>
The worst prognosis is in those people arriving at hospital in a state of [[Shock (circulatory)|shock]]. Total mortality in treated people (ingestion and wound) is around 33%.<ref name="Liu2006" />
Preventive measures include avoiding the consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish and protecting open wounds from exposure to seawater. Treatment of V. vulnificus infections typically involves the use of [[antibiotics]] such as [[doxycycline]] or [[ceftazidime]]. In severe cases, [[surgical intervention]] may be necessary to remove infected tissue.
People especially vulnerable are those with liver disease (especially [[cirrhosis]] and [[hepatitis]]) or [[immunocompromised]] states (some kinds of [[cancer]], bone marrow suppression, [[Human immunodeficiency virus|HIV]], [[diabetes]], etc.). With these cases, ''V. vulnificus'' usually enters the bloodstream, where it may cause fever and chills, septic shock (with sharply decreased blood pressure), and blistering skin lesions.<ref name=Doyle_2005_Oceans>{{cite book |vauthors=Oliver JD, Kaper J | title = Vibrio vulnificus. In: Oceans and Health: Pathogens in the Marine Environment. (Belken SS, Colwell RR, editors) | edition = 2nd | publisher = Springer Science | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-387-23708-4 }}</ref> About half of those who contract blood infections die.
== Related Pages ==
''V. vulnificus'' infections also disproportionately affect males; 85% of those developing [[endotoxic]] shock from the bacteria are male. Females having had an [[oophorectomy]] experienced increased mortality rates, as [[estrogen]] has been shown experimentally to have a protective effect against ''V. vulnificus''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Merkel SM, Alexander S, Zufall E, Oliver JD, Huet-Hudson YM | title=Essential Role for Estrogen in Protection against ''Vibrio vulnificus''-Induced Endotoxic Shock | journal=Infection and Immunity | volume=69 | issue=10 | year=2001 | pages=6119–22 | pmid=11553550 | doi=10.1128/IAI.69.10.6119-6122.2001 | pmc=98741}}
* [[Vibrio cholerae]]
</ref>
* [[Vibrio parahaemolyticus]]
* [[Bacterial infections]]
* [[Marine microbiology]]
==Epidemiology==
{{Bacteria}}
{{further|Effects of global warming on oceans}}
''V. vulnificus'' is commonly found in the [[Gulf of Mexico]], where more than a dozen people have died from the infection since 1990.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/11/still-too-many-raw-oyster-deaths/#.V6AlU_krLrd | title=Still Too Many Raw Oyster Deaths in Gulf States | work=Food Safety News | date=November 22, 2011 | accessdate=August 1, 2016 | author=Flynn, Dan}}</ref> Most deaths at that time were occurring due to fulminant sepsis, either in the area of oyster harvest and ingestion, or in tourists returning home. Lack of disease recognition, and also of the risk factors, presentation, and cause, were and are major obstacles to good outcome and recovery.
After the successful treatment of the first person, the [[Florida Department of Health]] was able to trace the origin of the outbreak to [[Apalachicola Bay]] oysters and their harvesting in water prone to excessive growth of the organism. This contamination was due to warmth of the water and change in freshwater dilution because of a change in flow of the [[Chattahoochee River]] into the [[Apalachicola River]], and in turn into Apalachicola Bay. A similar situation occurred after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in [[New Orleans]].
== Further Treatment Research ==
While the treatment for ''V. vulnificus'' can be as straightforward as making the rapid choice of appropriate antibiotics, there have been cases in which the genes mutated, thus rendering antibiotics ineffective. While looking for an answer to this problem, researchers found that one way to stop the infection from spreading is to again mutate the bacteria. This mutation happens on the flagellum of the bacteria. When injected with flgC and flgE (two genes in the flagella that cause the mutation), the flagellum no longer function properly. When unable to move normally, the bacteria is no longer able to spread toxins through the body, thus decreasing the effect that ''V. vulnificus'' has on the body systemically.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliver|first=James D.|last2=Jones|first2=Melissa K.|date=2009-05-01|title=Vibrio vulnificus: Disease and Pathogenesis|journal=Infection and Immunity|language=en|volume=77|issue=5|pages=1723–1733|doi=10.1128/IAI.01046-08|issn=0019-9567|pmc=2681776|pmid=19255188}}</ref>
==History==
The pathogen was first isolated in 1976 from a series of blood culture samples submitted to the CDC in [[Atlanta]].<ref name="pmid1262454"/> It was described as a "lactose-positive vibrio".<ref name="pmid1262454">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hollis DG, Weaver RE, Baker CN, Thornsberry C |title=Halophilic ''Vibrio'' species isolated from blood cultures |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=425–31 |date=April 1976 |pmid=1262454 |pmc=274318 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/content/3/4/425.long | format=PDF}}</ref> It was subsequently given the name ''Beneckea vulnifica'',<ref name="pmid1015934">{{cite journal |vauthors=Reichelt JL, Baumann P, Baumann L |title=Study of genetic relationships among marine species of the genera ''Beneckea'' and ''Photobacterium'' by means of in vitro DNA/DNA hybridization |journal=Arch. Microbiol. |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=101–20 |date=October 1976 |pmid=1015934 |doi=10.1007/bf00416975}}</ref> and finally ''Vibrio vulnificus'' by Farmer in 1979.<ref name="pmid90993">{{cite journal |author=Farmer JJ |title=Vibrio ("Beneckea") vulnificus, the bacterium associated with sepsis, septicaemia, and the sea |journal=Lancet |volume=314 |issue=8148 |pages=903 |date=October 1979 |pmid=90993 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(79)92715-6}}</ref>
Increasing seasonal temperatures and decreasing coastal salinity levels seem to favor a greater concentration of '' Vibrio'' within filter-feeding shellfish of the US Atlantic seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico, especially oysters (''[[Crassostrea virginica]]''). Scientists have frequently demonstrated the presence of ''V. vulnificus'' in the gut of oysters and other shellfish and in the intestines of fish that inhabit oyster reefs. The vast majority of people who develop sepsis from ''V. vulnificus'' became ill after they ate raw oysters; most of these cases have been men.<ref>{{cite journal|first=James H. |last=Diaz |title=Skin and Soft Tissue Infections Following Marine Injuries and Exposures in Travelers |journal=Journal of Travel Medicine |date=May 2014 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=207–213 |pmid=24628985 |doi=10.1111/jtm.12115 |issn=1195-1982|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In 2005, health officials clearly identified strains of ''V. vulnificus'' infections among evacuees from [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|New Orleans]] due to the flooding there caused by Hurricane Katrina.<ref>{{cite news | first=Scott | last=Gold | title=Newest Peril from Flooding Is Disease | date=September 6, 2005 | newspaper=Los Angeles Times }}</ref>
In 2015 in Florida, eight cases of ''V. vulnificus'' infection with two resulting in death were reported.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/us/flesh-eating-bacteria-kills-two-in-florida-as-water-temperatures-rise/ar-AAbIJdf | title=Flesh-Eating Bacteria Kills Two in Florida as Water Temperatures Rise | work=msn.com | date=June 18, 2015 | accessdate=August 1, 2016 | author=Katy Galimberti}}</ref>
==Natural transformation==
[[Transformation (genetics)|Natural transformation]] is a [[bacteria]]l adaptation for [[DNA]] transfer between individual cells. ''V. vulnificus'' was found to become naturally transformable during growth on [[chitin]] in the form of crab shells.<ref name="pmid19502446">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gulig PA, Tucker MS, Thiaville PC, Joseph JL, Brown RN |title=USER friendly cloning coupled with chitin-based natural transformation enables rapid mutagenesis of Vibrio vulnificus |journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol. |volume=75 |issue=15 |pages=4936–49 |year=2009 |pmid=19502446 |pmc=2725515 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02564-08 |url=}}</ref> The ability to now carry out transformation experiments in the laboratory should facilitate [[molecular genetics|molecular genetic]] analysis of this opportunistic [[pathogen]].
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
== External links ==
*[http://textbookofbacteriology.net/V.vulnificus.html Large and detailed article on ''V. vulnificus'' at ''Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology'']
*[http://www.cnn.com/video/?/video/health/2013/08/02/dnt-woman-fights-for-life-bacteria-in-water.wbbh#/video/health/2013/08/02/dnt-woman-fights-for-life-bacteria-in-water.wbbh CNN video on vibrio vulnificus]
*[http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=17276&submit=Search Type strain of ''Vibrio vulnificus'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase]
Vibrio vulnificus is a species of Gram-negative bacteria that is part of the Vibrionaceae family. It is a halophilic (salt-loving) bacterium that is commonly found in marine environments such as estuaries, brackish ponds, or coastal areas. V. vulnificus is known for causing severe illness in humans, particularly through the consumption of contaminated seafood or exposure of open wounds to contaminated water.
Vibrio vulnificus is a curved rod-shaped bacterium that is motile due to a single polar flagellum. It is a facultative anaerobe, meaning it can survive in both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments. The bacterium thrives in warm temperatures, typically found in waters with temperatures above 20°C (68°F).
Exposure of open wounds to contaminated seawater can result in wound infections. These infections can rapidly progress to necrotizing fasciitis, a severe condition that requires immediate medical attention.
In susceptible individuals, V. vulnificus can enter the bloodstream, leading to septicemia. This condition is characterized by fever, chills, hypotension, and blistering skin lesions. It has a high mortality rate if not treated promptly.
Preventive measures include avoiding the consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish and protecting open wounds from exposure to seawater. Treatment of V. vulnificus infections typically involves the use of antibiotics such as doxycycline or ceftazidime. In severe cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove infected tissue.
