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{{Infobox medical condition (new)  
{{Short description|Congenital heart defect affecting the great arteries}}
| name           = Transposition of the great vessels
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
| image           = D-tga-575px.jpg  
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| caption         = Illustration of transposition of the great vessels  
| name = Transposition of the Great Vessels
|
| synonyms = d-TGA, Congenital heart defect - transposition
| pronounce       =
| image = D-tga-575px.jpg
| field           =
| caption = Illustration of transposition of the great vessels
| synonyms        = d-TGA, Congenital heart defect - transposition<ref name="medlineplus">{{cite web |title=Transposition of the great arteries: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001568.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |accessdate=28 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>
| pronounce =
| complications   =  
| field = [[Pediatric cardiology]], [[Cardiothoracic surgery]]
| onset           =  
| symptoms = Cyanosis, rapid breathing, difficulty feeding, heart murmur
| duration       =  
| complications = Heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias
| types           =
| onset = Congenital (present at birth)
| symptoms        =
| duration = Lifelong condition (requires surgical correction)
| causes         =  
| types = [[Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries]] (d-TGA), [[Levo-Transposition of the great arteries]] (l-TGA)
| risks           =  
| causes = Genetic and environmental factors
| diagnosis       =  
| risks = Maternal diabetes, genetic syndromes, prenatal infections
| differential   =  
| diagnosis = [[Echocardiography]], [[Chest X-ray]], [[Electrocardiogram]], [[Cardiac catheterization]]
| prevention     =  
| differential = [[Tetralogy of Fallot]], [[Total anomalous pulmonary venous return]], [[Double outlet right ventricle]]
| treatment       =  
| prevention = Prenatal care, avoidance of teratogenic exposures
| medication     =  
| treatment = [[Arterial switch operation]], [[Atrial switch operation]], prostaglandin therapy
| prognosis       =  
| medication = [[Prostaglandins]], diuretics (supportive care)
| frequency       =  
| prognosis = Good with early surgical correction; lifelong follow-up required
| deaths         =  
| frequency = 1 in 3,000 to 5,000 live births
| deaths = High mortality if untreated
}}
}}
'''Transposition of the great vessels''' ('''TGV''') is a group of [[congenital]] [[congenital heart defect|heart defects]] involving an abnormal spatial arrangement of any of the [[great vessel]]s: [[superior vena cava|superior]] and/or [[inferior vena cava|inferior]] [[venae cavae]], [[pulmonary artery]], [[pulmonary vein]]s, and [[aorta]]. Congenital heart diseases involving only the primary [[artery|arteries]] (pulmonary artery and aorta) belong to a sub-group called '''transposition of the great arteries''' ('''TGA'''), which is considered the most common congenital heart lesion that presents in neonates.<ref name="warnes2006">{{cite journal |last1=Warnes |first1=Carole A. |title=Transposition of the Great Arteries |journal=Circulation |date=2006 |volume=114 |issue=24 |pages=2699–2709 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.105.592352 |pmid=17159076 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:d-TGA.jpg|thumb|300px|Normal heart anatomy vs. d-TGA]]
[[File:Transposition-of-great-vessels.jpg|thumb|200px|Chest X-ray showing the "egg-on-a-string" sign.]]
'''Transposition of the Great Vessels''' ('''TGV''') is a group of [[congenital]] [[heart defects]] involving an abnormal arrangement of the [[great vessels]], including the aorta and pulmonary artery. It is a severe cyanotic congenital heart defect (CHD), meaning it causes a lack of oxygen in the body due to improper blood circulation.<ref name="warnes2006">{{cite journal |last1=Warnes |first1=Carole A. |title=Transposition of the Great Arteries |journal=Circulation |date=2006 |volume=114 |issue=24 |pages=2699–2709 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.105.592352 |pmid=17159076 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==Types==
The condition is primarily classified into dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries (d-TGA) and levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries (l-TGA). It is one of the most common congenital heart defects requiring early surgical intervention.
[[File:Transposition great arteries Orphanet 1750-1172-3-27-2.JPEG|thumb|Subcostal [[echocardiography|echocardiographic]] view showing discordant ventriculoarterial connections together with the presence of parallel, rather than crossing, great arteries arising from the ventricles.]]


[[Transposition (birth defect)|Transposed]] vessels can present with [[wiktionary:atriovenous|atriovenous]], [[wiktionary:ventriculoarterial|ventriculoarterial]] and/or [[wiktionary: arteriovenous|arteriovenous]] [[wiktionary:discordant|discordance]]. The effects may range from a slight change in [[blood pressure]] to an interruption in [[circulatory system|circulation]] depending on the nature and degree of the misplacement, and on which specific vessels are involved.
== Types ==
[[File:Transposition great arteries Orphanet 1750-1172-3-27-2.JPEG|thumb|Subcostal [[echocardiography|echocardiographic]] view showing discordant ventriculoarterial connections.]]


Although "transposed" literally means "swapped", many types of TGV involve vessels that are in abnormal positions, while not actually being swapped with each other. The terms TGV and TGA are most commonly used in reference to [[dextro-Transposition of the great arteries|dextro-TGA]] – in which the two main arteries ''are'' in swapped positions; however, both terms are also commonly used, though to a slightly lesser extent, in reference to [[Levo-Transposition of the great arteries|levo-TGA]] – in which both the arteries and the [[ventricle (heart)|ventricles]] are swapped; while other defects in this category are almost never referred to by either of these terms.
Transposition of the Great Vessels results in altered circulatory patterns, leading to cyanosis (bluish discoloration due to low oxygen levels). There are two major forms:


===Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries===
=== Dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries (d-TGA) ===
{{Main|dextro-Transposition of the great arteries}}
{{Main|Dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries}}
[[Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries]] (also known as dextro-TGA) is a cyanotic heart defect in which the aorta arises from the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle. This switch causes deoxygenated blood from the right heart to be pumped immediately through the aorta and circulated throughout the body and the heart itself, bypassing the lungs altogether. In this same condition, the left heart continuously pumps oxygenated blood back into the lungs through the pulmonary artery, instead of out into the body's circulation as it normally would. In effect, two separate "[[Informal fallacy|circular]]" (parallel) circulatory systems are created. It is called a [[cyanotic heart defect|cyanotic congenital heart defect]] (CHD) because the newborn infant turns blue (cyanotic) from the lack of oxygen.
* Most common form of TGV
* The aorta arises from the right ventricle, and the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle.
* This creates two separate, non-mixing circulatory loops, preventing oxygen-rich blood from reaching the body.
* Cyanosis appears shortly after birth due to a lack of oxygenated blood circulation.
* Requires surgical intervention (arterial switch operation) within the first weeks of life.


===Levo-Transposition of the great arteries===
=== Levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries (l-TGA) ===
{{Main|Levo-Transposition of the great arteries}}
{{Main|Levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries}}
Levo-Transposition of the great arteries (also known as Levo-TGA, congenitally corrected TGA, double discordance, or ventricular inversion) is a rare, [[acyanotic heart defect]] in which the primary arteries are transposed, with the aorta anterior and to the left of the pulmonary artery, and the morphological left and right ventricles with their corresponding [[atrioventricular valves]] are also transposed.<ref name="martins2008">{{cite journal |last1=Martins |first1=Paula |last2=Castela |first2=Eduardo |title=Transposition of the great arteries |journal=Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases |date=2008 |volume=3 |pages=27 |doi=10.1186/1750-1172-3-27 |pmid=18851735 |issn=1750-1172 |pmc=2577629}}</ref> In other words, the right ventricle is on the left side of the heart and the left ventricle is on the right side of the heart. The systemic and the [[pulmonary circulation]] are connected in this condition. Complications can arise from the pressure change due to the fact that the right ventricle, which is adapted for pumping blood into the low-pressure pulmonary circulation, is being tasked with pumping blood at a much higher pressure against the high resistance of the [[systemic circulation]], since it is now in the position of where the left ventricle is typically located.
* Also called "congenitally corrected TGA" (ccTGA).
* The ventricles and great arteries are transposed, but blood circulation remains normal because both atrioventricular and ventriculoarterial connections are reversed.
* Often asymptomatic at birth, but may lead to heart failure, arrhythmias, or valve dysfunction later in life.


===Simple and complex TGV===
== Symptoms and Signs ==
In many cases, TGV is accompanied by other heart defects, the most common type being [[wiktionary:intracardiac|intracardiac]] [[shunt (medical)|shunts]] such as [[atrial septal defect]] including [[patent foramen ovale]], [[ventricular septal defect]], and [[patent ductus arteriosus]]. [[Stenosis]], or other defects, of [[valve]]s and/or [[Blood vessel|vessels]] may also be present.
Symptoms depend on the type of transposition and any associated heart defects.<ref name="medlineplus">{{cite web |title=Transposition of the great arteries: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001568.htm |website=medlineplus.gov |accessdate=28 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref>


When no other heart defects are present it is called 'simple' TGV; when other defects are present it is called 'complex' TGV.
Common symptoms include:
* Cyanosis (bluish skin color)
* Rapid breathing (tachypnea)
* Difficulty feeding
* Heart murmur
* Poor weight gain
* Weak pulse or poor perfusion


==Symptoms and signs==
If untreated, complications such as heart failure and pulmonary hypertension can occur.
Symptoms may appear at birth or after birth. The severity of symptoms depends on the type of TGV, and the type and size of other heart defects that may be present ([[Ventricular septal defect]], [[Atrial septal defect]], or [[Patent ductus arteriosus]]). Most babies with TGA have blue skin color (cyanosis) in the first hours or days of their lives, since dextro-TGA is the more common type.  


Other symptoms include:
== Risk Factors ==
Several factors increase the risk of transposition of the great vessels:
* Maternal diabetes
* Genetic syndromes (e.g., 22q11.2 deletion syndrome)
* Prenatal infections (e.g., rubella)
* Exposure to teratogens (e.g., alcohol, certain medications)
* Family history of congenital heart defects


•Fast breathing ([[tachypnea]])
== Diagnosis ==
Early diagnosis is essential, usually made before or shortly after birth using imaging and clinical tests.


•Difficulty breathing ([[dyspnea]])
* Fetal echocardiography – Detects TGV in utero.
* Postnatal echocardiography – Confirms the diagnosis and detects associated defects.
* Chest X-ray – Classic “egg-on-a-string” appearance due to an enlarged heart and narrowed mediastinum.
* Electrocardiogram (ECG) – Non-specific but may show right ventricular hypertrophy.
* Cardiac catheterization – Occasionally needed for detailed structural analysis.


•Fast heart rate ([[tachycardia]])
== Treatment ==
Pre-Surgical Management
1. Prostaglandin E1 (Alprostadil) – Keeps the ductus arteriosus open to allow blood mixing.
2. Balloon Atrial Septostomy (Rashkind procedure) – Enlarges the foramen ovale to allow better oxygenation.


•Poor feeding<ref name="martins2008"/>
Surgical Interventions
#1. Arterial Switch Operation (ASO)
* Preferred surgery for d-TGA.
* Aorta and pulmonary artery are reconnected to the correct ventricles.
* Performed within first two weeks of life.
* Excellent long-term outcomes.


== Risk factors ==
#2. Atrial Switch Operations (Mustard or Senning Procedure)
Preexisting [[diabetes mellitus]] of a pregnant mother is a risk factor that has been described for the fetus having TGV.<ref name="martins2008"/>
* Alternative for older patients who missed early intervention.
[[Image:Transposition-of-great-vessels.jpg|thumb|200px|X-ray showing characteristic finding in case of Transposition of the great vessels which is called egg on side sign]]
* Creates an intra-atrial baffle to direct blood flow.
* Higher risk of arrhythmias and right ventricular failure.


==Diagnosis==
#3. Double Switch Operation (for l-TGA)
•'''[[Electrocardiogram]]''': An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical activity of the heart through the use of electrodes that are placed on the body. The findings through this diagnostic method are not specific to only TGA. If TGA is present, rightward deviation of the QRS complex and right ventricular hypertrophy or biventricular hypertrophy may be noted.<ref name="martins2008"/>
* Performed in levo-TGA cases with ventricular dysfunction.
* Corrects both ventricular and arterial malposition.


•'''[[Chest X-Ray]]''': On chest X-ray (CXR), transposition of the great vessels typically shows a cardio-[[Mediastinum|mediastinal]] silhouette appearing as an "''egg on a string'' ", in which the [[Cardiomegaly|enlarged heart]] represents an egg on its side and the narrowed, [[Atrophy|atrophic]] [[thymus]] of the superior mediastinum represents the string.<ref name= Ferguson >{{cite journal |vauthors=Ferguson EC, Krishnamurthy R, Oldham SA |title= Classic imaging signs of congenital cardiovascular abnormalities |journal=Radiographics |date =2007|volume=27|issue=5|pages= 1323–34 |pmid= 17848694 |issn=0271-5333|doi=10.1148/rg.275065148 }}</ref>
Post-Surgical Care
* Regular cardiology follow-ups
* Lifelong monitoring for arrhythmias, valve dysfunction, or heart failure
* Exercise restrictions may be needed for some patients.


•'''[[Echocardiogram]]''': An echocardiogram is an ultrasound of the heart which accurately assesses the heart’s structure and function, and can show the specific features of TGA, if present. This imaging modality allows for the definitive diagnosis of TGA to be made.<ref name="martins2008"/>
== Prognosis ==
* Without surgery: High mortality within the first year of life.
* With surgical correction:
* 90% survival rate into adulthood.
* Most children lead normal lives but require lifelong cardiac monitoring.
* Risk of late complications (e.g., arrhythmias, heart failure) remains.


•'''[[Cardiac catheterization]]''': Catheterization is done if other diagnostic tests do not provide enough information to make a diagnosis, or if a neonate is unstable. During this procedure a catheter is inserted in the artery or vein in the groin and makes its way up to the heart. Dye is used to visualize the heart’s structures on x-ray. It can also measure the pressures in the heart and lungs.<ref name="warnes2006"/><ref name="martins2008"/>
== Prevention ==
While not always preventable, some measures can reduce risks:
* Proper prenatal care
* Diabetes management during pregnancy
* Avoiding teratogens and infections during pregnancy
* Genetic counseling for families with congenital heart disease history


==Treatment==
== See Also ==
All infants with TGA will need surgery to correct the defect. Life expectancy is only a few months if corrective surgery is not performed.
* [[Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries]]
 
* [[Levo-Transposition of the great arteries]]
'''Before surgery:''' For newborns with transposition, [[prostaglandins]] can be given to keep the [[ductus arteriosus]] open which allows for the mixing of the otherwise isolated pulmonary and systemic circuits. Thus, oxygenated blood that recirculates back to the lungs can mix with blood that circulates throughout the body and can keep the body oxygenated until surgery can be performed.<ref>Marathe SP, Talwar S. Surgery for transposition of great arteries: A historical perspective. Ann Pediatr Card [serial online] 2015 [cited 2018 Jun 22];8:122-8. Available from: http://www.annalspc.com/text.asp?2015/8/2/122/157025 </ref> [[Atrial septostomy]] can also be performed, usually with a cardiac catheter instead of surgery, to enlarge a natural connection between the heart's upper chambers (atria). This will allow for the oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood to mix, resulting in improved oxygen delivery to the baby's body.<ref name="medlineplus"/>
* [[Mustard procedure]]
 
'''Surgery:''' The [[Arterial switch operation]] is a surgery where the pulmonary artery and the aorta are moved to their normal positions. This is the most common surgery done to correct dextro-TGA, and is considered the definitive treatment. The [[Atrial switch operation]] is an alternative surgical option when the arterial switch is not feasible due to particular [[coronary artery]] anatomy. This operation creates a tunnel (baffle) between the heart's two upper chambers (atria).<ref name="warnes2006"/>
 
'''After surgery:''' Lifelong follow up care with a cardiologist is needed. Most infants who undergo surgery have their symptoms relieved and are able to live a normal life. Potential complications that can occur include coronary artery problems, heart valves problems or irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias).<ref name="warnes2006"/>
 
==History==
TGV was first described in 1797 by [[Matthew Baillie]].<ref>''The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body'' (1793)</ref>
 
==Additional images==
[[File:d-TGA.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Normal heart anatomy compared to d-TGA]]
[[File:Transposition great arteries Orphanet 1750-1172-3-27-4.JPEG|thumb|Echocardiography of a complex transposition with a [[ventricular septal defect]] and [[pulmonary stenosis]].<br/>Abbreviations: LV and RV=left and right ventricle, PT=pulmonary trunk, VSD=ventricular septal defect, PS=pulmonary stenosis.]]
[[File:Transposition great arteries Orphanet 1750-1172-3-27-1.JPEG|thumb|center|[[Echocardiogram]] in transposition of the great arteries. This subcostal view shows the [[left ventricle]] giving rise to a vessel that bifurcates, which is thus identified as the [[pulmonary artery]].<br/>Abbreviations: RA=right atrium, RV=right ventricle, LV=left ventricle, PT=pulmonary trunk, LPA and RPA=left and right pulmonary artery.]]
{{clear}}
 
==See also==
*[[Levo-Transposition of the great arteries]]
*[[Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries]]
*[[Mustard procedure|Mustard Procedure]]
 
==References==
<references/>
 
== External links ==
{{Medical resources
|  DiseasesDB    = 13259
|  ICD10          = {{ICD10|Q|20|3|q|20}}
|  ICD9          = {{ICD9|745.1}}
|  ICDO          =
|  OMIM          = 608808
|  MedlinePlus    = 001568
|  eMedicineSubj  = ped
|  eMedicineTopic = 2548
|  MeshID        = D014188
}}


{{Congenital malformations and deformations of circulatory system}}
{{Congenital malformations and deformations of circulatory system}}
 
{{Stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Transposition of the Great Vessels}}
[[Category:Congenital heart defects]]
[[Category:Congenital heart defects]]
[[Category:Neonatology]]
[[Category:Neonatology]]
{{dictionary-stub1}}

Latest revision as of 04:11, 20 March 2025

Congenital heart defect affecting the great arteries



Transposition of the Great Vessels
Synonyms d-TGA, Congenital heart defect - transposition
Pronounce
Field Pediatric cardiology, Cardiothoracic surgery
Symptoms Cyanosis, rapid breathing, difficulty feeding, heart murmur
Complications Heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhythmias
Onset Congenital (present at birth)
Duration Lifelong condition (requires surgical correction)
Types Dextro-Transposition of the great arteries (d-TGA), Levo-Transposition of the great arteries (l-TGA)
Causes Genetic and environmental factors
Risks Maternal diabetes, genetic syndromes, prenatal infections
Diagnosis Echocardiography, Chest X-ray, Electrocardiogram, Cardiac catheterization
Differential diagnosis Tetralogy of Fallot, Total anomalous pulmonary venous return, Double outlet right ventricle
Prevention Prenatal care, avoidance of teratogenic exposures
Treatment Arterial switch operation, Atrial switch operation, prostaglandin therapy
Medication Prostaglandins, diuretics (supportive care)
Prognosis Good with early surgical correction; lifelong follow-up required
Frequency 1 in 3,000 to 5,000 live births
Deaths High mortality if untreated


Normal heart anatomy vs. d-TGA
Chest X-ray showing the "egg-on-a-string" sign.

Transposition of the Great Vessels (TGV) is a group of congenital heart defects involving an abnormal arrangement of the great vessels, including the aorta and pulmonary artery. It is a severe cyanotic congenital heart defect (CHD), meaning it causes a lack of oxygen in the body due to improper blood circulation.<ref name="warnes2006">, 

 Transposition of the Great Arteries, 
 Circulation, 
 
 Vol. 114(Issue: 24),
 pp. 2699–2709,
 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.105.592352,
 PMID: 17159076,</ref>

The condition is primarily classified into dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries (d-TGA) and levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries (l-TGA). It is one of the most common congenital heart defects requiring early surgical intervention.

Types[edit]

Subcostal echocardiographic view showing discordant ventriculoarterial connections.

Transposition of the Great Vessels results in altered circulatory patterns, leading to cyanosis (bluish discoloration due to low oxygen levels). There are two major forms:

Dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries (d-TGA)[edit]

Main article: Dextro-Transposition of the Great Arteries
  • Most common form of TGV
  • The aorta arises from the right ventricle, and the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle.
  • This creates two separate, non-mixing circulatory loops, preventing oxygen-rich blood from reaching the body.
  • Cyanosis appears shortly after birth due to a lack of oxygenated blood circulation.
  • Requires surgical intervention (arterial switch operation) within the first weeks of life.

Levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries (l-TGA)[edit]

Main article: Levo-Transposition of the Great Arteries
  • Also called "congenitally corrected TGA" (ccTGA).
  • The ventricles and great arteries are transposed, but blood circulation remains normal because both atrioventricular and ventriculoarterial connections are reversed.
  • Often asymptomatic at birth, but may lead to heart failure, arrhythmias, or valve dysfunction later in life.

Symptoms and Signs[edit]

Symptoms depend on the type of transposition and any associated heart defects.<ref name="medlineplus">

Transposition of the great arteries: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia(link). medlineplus.gov.




</ref>

Common symptoms include:

  • Cyanosis (bluish skin color)
  • Rapid breathing (tachypnea)
  • Difficulty feeding
  • Heart murmur
  • Poor weight gain
  • Weak pulse or poor perfusion

If untreated, complications such as heart failure and pulmonary hypertension can occur.

Risk Factors[edit]

Several factors increase the risk of transposition of the great vessels:

  • Maternal diabetes
  • Genetic syndromes (e.g., 22q11.2 deletion syndrome)
  • Prenatal infections (e.g., rubella)
  • Exposure to teratogens (e.g., alcohol, certain medications)
  • Family history of congenital heart defects

Diagnosis[edit]

Early diagnosis is essential, usually made before or shortly after birth using imaging and clinical tests.

  • Fetal echocardiography – Detects TGV in utero.
  • Postnatal echocardiography – Confirms the diagnosis and detects associated defects.
  • Chest X-ray – Classic “egg-on-a-string” appearance due to an enlarged heart and narrowed mediastinum.
  • Electrocardiogram (ECG) – Non-specific but may show right ventricular hypertrophy.
  • Cardiac catheterization – Occasionally needed for detailed structural analysis.

Treatment[edit]

Pre-Surgical Management 1. Prostaglandin E1 (Alprostadil) – Keeps the ductus arteriosus open to allow blood mixing. 2. Balloon Atrial Septostomy (Rashkind procedure) – Enlarges the foramen ovale to allow better oxygenation.

Surgical Interventions

  1. 1. Arterial Switch Operation (ASO)
  • Preferred surgery for d-TGA.
  • Aorta and pulmonary artery are reconnected to the correct ventricles.
  • Performed within first two weeks of life.
  • Excellent long-term outcomes.
  1. 2. Atrial Switch Operations (Mustard or Senning Procedure)
  • Alternative for older patients who missed early intervention.
  • Creates an intra-atrial baffle to direct blood flow.
  • Higher risk of arrhythmias and right ventricular failure.
  1. 3. Double Switch Operation (for l-TGA)
  • Performed in levo-TGA cases with ventricular dysfunction.
  • Corrects both ventricular and arterial malposition.

Post-Surgical Care

  • Regular cardiology follow-ups
  • Lifelong monitoring for arrhythmias, valve dysfunction, or heart failure
  • Exercise restrictions may be needed for some patients.

Prognosis[edit]

  • Without surgery: High mortality within the first year of life.
  • With surgical correction:
  • 90% survival rate into adulthood.
  • Most children lead normal lives but require lifelong cardiac monitoring.
  • Risk of late complications (e.g., arrhythmias, heart failure) remains.

Prevention[edit]

While not always preventable, some measures can reduce risks:

  • Proper prenatal care
  • Diabetes management during pregnancy
  • Avoiding teratogens and infections during pregnancy
  • Genetic counseling for families with congenital heart disease history

See Also[edit]


Congenital heart defects
Heart septal defect
Valvular heart disease
Other


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