Peptidoglycan - Revision history

Prab at 18:18, 22 February 2025

2025-02-22T18:18:56Z

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	== Peptidoglycan Chain Extension ==		== Peptidoglycan Chain Extension ==

	~~[[File:Peptidoglycan_Chain_Extension.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Illustration of peptidoglycan chain extension.]]~~

	During bacterial growth, peptidoglycan chains are extended by the addition of new disaccharide-pentapeptide units. This process is tightly regulated to ensure the integrity of the cell wall during cell division.		During bacterial growth, peptidoglycan chains are extended by the addition of new disaccharide-pentapeptide units. This process is tightly regulated to ensure the integrity of the cell wall during cell division.

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← Older revision		Revision as of 14:12, 21 February 2025
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	== Peptidoglycan ==		== Peptidoglycan ==

	[[File:~~Peptidoglycan~~.~~png~~\|thumb\|right\|~~Diagram~~ of peptidoglycan ~~structure~~]]		[[File:Peptidoglycan_en.svg\|thumb\|right\|Structure of peptidoglycan.]]

	'''Peptidoglycan''', also known as '''murein''', is a polymer that forms a protective structural layer in the cell walls of [[bacteria]]. It is a crucial component that provides mechanical strength and ~~rigidity~~ to the bacterial cell ~~wall~~, ~~allowing bacteria~~ to ~~maintain their shape and resist~~ osmotic pressure.		'''Peptidoglycan''', also known as '''murein''', is a polymer that forms a protective structural layer in the cell walls of [[bacteria]]. It is a crucial component that provides mechanical strength and shape to the bacterial cell, preventing it from bursting due to osmotic pressure.

	== Structure ==		== Structure ==

	Peptidoglycan is composed of ~~long~~ chains of alternating [[N-acetylglucosamine]] (NAG) and [[N-acetylmuramic acid]] (NAM) ~~residues~~. These ~~chains~~ are ~~cross-~~linked by ~~short peptides, which provide the structural integrity necessary for the cell wall's function. The peptide cross~~-~~links vary among different bacterial species~~, ~~but they typically include unusual amino acids such as [[D-alanine]] and [[D-glutamic acid]]~~.		Peptidoglycan is composed of glycan chains cross-linked by short peptides. The glycan chains consist of alternating units of [[N-acetylglucosamine]] (NAG) and [[N-acetylmuramic acid]] (NAM). These sugars are linked by β-(1,4) glycosidic bonds.

	[[File:~~Peptidoglycan_layer~~.~~png~~\|thumb\|left\|~~Cross~~-~~section~~ of a bacterial cell wall ~~showing peptidoglycan layer]]~~		[[File:Mureine.svg\|thumb\|left\|Chemical structure of murein.]]

			The peptide component typically consists of a short chain of amino acids attached to the NAM residues. The cross-linking of these peptide chains provides the rigidity and strength necessary for the bacterial cell wall.

	== Function ==		== Function ==

	~~The primary function of peptidoglycan is to maintain~~ the shape of the ~~bacterial~~ cell and ~~to protect it from osmotic lysis~~. ~~The rigid structure of peptidoglycan~~ prevents the cell from ~~bursting~~ in hypotonic environments, where ~~water influx could otherwise cause~~ the cell to ~~swell~~ and ~~rupture~~.		Peptidoglycan serves several critical functions in bacterial cells:

			* '''Structural support''': It maintains the shape of the cell and protects against mechanical damage.
			* '''Osmotic protection''': It prevents the cell from lysing in hypotonic environments by counteracting the internal osmotic pressure.
			* '''Cell division''': It plays a role in the process of [[binary fission]], where new peptidoglycan is synthesized to form the septum that divides the cell.

			== Synthesis ==

			The synthesis of peptidoglycan involves several steps:

			1. '''Precursor formation''': NAG and NAM are synthesized in the cytoplasm and linked to a lipid carrier.
			2. '''Polymerization''': The glycan chains are polymerized at the cell membrane.
			3. '''Cross-linking''': The peptide chains are cross-linked by [[penicillin-binding proteins]] (PBPs).

			[[File:PBP_catalysis.svg\|thumb\|right\|Catalytic mechanism of penicillin-binding proteins.]]

			== Role in Antibiotic Action ==

			Peptidoglycan is the target of several antibiotics, such as [[penicillin]] and [[vancomycin]]. These antibiotics inhibit the synthesis of peptidoglycan, leading to cell lysis and death.

	~~== Biosynthesis ==~~		* '''Penicillin''': Inhibits the transpeptidation reaction by binding to PBPs, preventing cross-linking of the peptidoglycan.
			* '''Vancomycin''': Binds to the D-Ala-D-Ala terminus of the peptide chain, blocking the transglycosylation and transpeptidation steps.

	~~Peptidoglycan biosynthesis is a complex process that involves several stages:~~		== Gram-Positive vs. Gram-Negative Bacteria ==

	~~1. '''Synthesis of precursors''': NAG and NAM are synthesized in the cytoplasm and linked to a carrier molecule called~~ [[~~bactoprenol]].~~		[[File:Gram-positive_cellwall-schematic.png\|thumb\|left\|Schematic of a Gram-positive bacterial cell wall.]]
	~~2. '''Polymerization'''~~: ~~The NAG~~-~~NAM disaccharide units are transported across the cell membrane and polymerized into long glycan chains~~.
	~~3. '''Cross~~-~~linking''': The glycan chains are cross-linked by transpeptidase enzymes, which form peptide bonds between the peptide side chains of adjacent glycan strands~~.

	~~== Antibiotic Target ==~~		Peptidoglycan is a major component of the cell wall in both [[Gram-positive bacteria]] and [[Gram-negative bacteria]], but its structure and thickness differ:

	~~Peptidoglycan is~~ a ~~major target for [[antibiotics]] such as [[penicillin]] and~~ [[~~vancomycin~~]]. ~~These antibiotics inhibit the enzymes involved in the cross~~-~~linking of~~ peptidoglycan ~~strands, weakening~~ the ~~cell wall~~ and ~~leading to cell lysis. The effectiveness of these antibiotics highlights the importance of peptidoglycan in bacterial survival~~.		* '''Gram-positive bacteria''': Have a thick peptidoglycan layer, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the [[Gram staining]] procedure.
			* '''Gram-negative bacteria''': Have a thin peptidoglycan layer located between the inner and outer membranes.

	== ~~Variations in Bacteria~~ ==		== Peptidoglycan Chain Extension ==

	~~Peptidoglycan structure varies between~~ [[~~Gram-positive bacteria~~]] ~~and [[Gram-negative bacteria]].~~		[[File:Peptidoglycan_Chain_Extension.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Illustration of peptidoglycan chain extension.]]

	* '''Gram-positive bacteria''' have a thick peptidoglycan ~~layer, which is responsible for retaining~~ the ~~crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining procedure~~.		During bacterial growth, peptidoglycan chains are extended by the addition of new disaccharide-pentapeptide units. This process is tightly regulated to ensure the integrity of the cell wall during cell division.
	* '''Gram-negative bacteria''' have a thinner peptidoglycan layer located between the ~~inner cytoplasmic membrane and~~ the ~~outer membrane, which contains [[lipopolysaccharides]]~~.

	== Related ~~pages~~ ==		== Related Pages ==

	* [[Bacterial cell wall]]		* [[Bacterial cell wall]]
	* [[Antibiotic resistance]]		* [[Antibiotic resistance]]
	* [[Gram staining]]		* [[Gram staining]]
	* [[~~Bacterial morphology~~]]		* [[Penicillin]]

	{{Bacterial cell ~~wall components~~}}		{{Bacterial cell walls}}

	[[Category:~~Microbiology~~]]		[[Category:Cell biology]]
	[[Category:Bacteriology]]		[[Category:Bacteriology]]
			[[Category:Antibiotics]]

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-'''Peptidoglycan''' (also known as '''murein''') is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the [[plasma membrane]] of most [[bacteria]], forming the cell wall. The sugar component consists of alternating residues of [[beta-(1,4) linked]] N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer.
+== Peptidoglycan ==
-==Structure==
+[[File:Peptidoglycan.png|thumb|right|Diagram of peptidoglycan structure]]
-==Biosynthesis==
+'''Peptidoglycan''', also known as '''murein''', is a polymer that forms a protective structural layer in the cell walls of [[bacteria]]. It is a crucial component that provides mechanical strength and rigidity to the bacterial cell wall, allowing bacteria to maintain their shape and resist osmotic pressure.
-==Function==
+== Structure ==
-==Clinical significance==
+Peptidoglycan is composed of long chains of alternating [[N-acetylglucosamine]] (NAG) and [[N-acetylmuramic acid]] (NAM) residues. These chains are cross-linked by short peptides, which provide the structural integrity necessary for the cell wall's function. The peptide cross-links vary among different bacterial species, but they typically include unusual amino acids such as [[D-alanine]] and [[D-glutamic acid]].
-==See also==
+[[File:Peptidoglycan_layer.png|thumb|left|Cross-section of a bacterial cell wall showing peptidoglycan layer]]
-==References==
+== Function ==
-{{stub}}
+The primary function of peptidoglycan is to maintain the shape of the bacterial cell and to protect it from osmotic lysis. The rigid structure of peptidoglycan prevents the cell from bursting in hypotonic environments, where water influx could otherwise cause the cell to swell and rupture.
 [[Category:Microbiology]]
-<gallery>
+[[Category:Bacteriology]]

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	[[Category:Cell biology]]		[[Category:Cell biology]]
	[[Category:Microbiology]]		[[Category:Microbiology]]
			<gallery>
			File:Peptidoglycan_en.svg\|Peptidoglycan structure
			File:Mureine.svg\|Murein structure
			File:Gram-positive_cellwall-schematic.png\|Gram-positive cell wall schematic
			File:PBP_catalysis.svg\|Penicillin-binding protein catalysis
			File:Peptidoglycan_Chain_Extension.jpg\|Peptidoglycan chain extension
			</gallery>

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New page

'''Peptidoglycan''' (also known as '''murein''') is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the [[plasma membrane]] of most [[bacteria]], forming the cell wall. The sugar component consists of alternating residues of [[beta-(1,4) linked]] N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer.

==Structure==
Peptidoglycan serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall, giving structural strength, as well as counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm. Peptidoglycan is also involved in binary fission during bacterial cell reproduction.

==Biosynthesis==
The biosynthesis of peptidoglycan is a multi-step process that takes place in the cytoplasm and on the inner side of the bacterial cell membrane. The final stages of peptidoglycan synthesis involve the insertion of the peptidoglycan subunits onto the existing peptidoglycan.

==Function==
Peptidoglycan is a critical component of the bacterial cell wall, providing rigidity and maintaining the overall shape of the cell. It also provides a physical barrier against osmotic lysis, mechanical forces, and predatory organisms.

==Clinical significance==
Peptidoglycan is a major target for [[antibiotics]] such as [[penicillin]], which inhibits its cross-linking. In humans, recognition of peptidoglycan is likely to be of importance in the innate immune response to infection.

==See also==
* [[Cell wall]]
* [[Gram-positive bacteria]]
* [[Gram-negative bacteria]]
* [[Antibiotics]]

==References==
<references />

{{stub}}

[[Category:Bacteria]]
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Microbiology]]